Mithra

Mithra

Mithra (Avestan: 𐬨𐬌𐬚𐬭𐬀 Miθra; Old Persian: 𐎷𐎰𐎼 Miθraʰ‍) is an ancient Iranian deity (yazata) of covenants, light, oaths, justice, the Sun, contracts, and friendship. In addition to being the divinity of contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing protector of Truth (Asha), and the guardian of cattle, the harvest, and the Waters.

The Romans attributed their Mithraic mysteries to Zoroastrian Persian sources relating to Mithra. Since the early 1970s, the dominant scholarship has noted dissimilarities between the Persian and Roman traditions, making it, at most, the result of Roman perceptions of Zoroastrian ideas. According to Boyce, the earliest literary references to the Mithraic mysteries are by the Latin poet Statius, about 80 CE, and Plutarch (c. 100 CE).

4486 Mithra, a near-Earth asteroid, is named after Mithra.

Etymology

Mithra

Together with the Vedic common noun mitra, the Avestan common noun miθra derives from Proto-Indo-Iranian mitrám (Mitra), from the root mi- "to bind", with the "tool suffix" -tra- "causing to". Thus, etymologically mitra/miθra means "that which causes binding", preserved in the Avestan word for "Covenant, Contract, Oath".

In Middle Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian etc.), miθra became mihr, from which New Persian مهر mehr and Armenian Միհր Mihr and Մհեր Mher ultimately derive.

In the Avesta

Mithra

As a member of the Iranian ahuric triad, along with Ahura Mazda and Ahura Berezant (Apam Napat), Mithra is an exalted figure. Alongside Apam Napat, Mithra maintains order in society, as well as Khvarenah, by which legitimate rule is maintained among the Iranian peoples. Together with Rashnu "Justice" and Sraosha "Obedience", Mithra is one of the three judges at the Chinvat Bridge, the "Bridge of Judgement" that all souls must cross. Unlike Sraosha, however, Mithra is not a psychopomp, a guide of souls to the place of the dead. Should the Good Thoughts, Words, and Deeds outweigh the Bad, Sraosha alone conveys the Soul across the Bridge. As the god of contract, Mithra is indeceivable, infallible, eternally watchful, and never-resting. Mithra is additionally the protector of cattle, and his stock epithet is "of Wide Pastures." He is guardian of the waters and ensures that those pastures receive enough of it.

Like most other divinities, Mithra is not mentioned by name in the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and traditionally attributed to Zoroaster himself, or by name in the Yasna Haptanghaiti, a seven-verse section of the Yasna liturgy that is linguistically as old as the Gathas. The lack of Mithra's presence in the Gathas was once a cause of some consternation amongst Iranians. An often repeated speculation of the first half of the 20th century was that the lack of any mention (i.e., Zoroaster's silence) of Mithra in these texts implied that Zoroaster had rejected Mithra. This ex silentio speculation is no longer followed. Building on that speculation was another series of speculations, which postulated that the reason why Zoroaster did not mention Mithra was that the latter was the supreme God of a bloodthirsty group of daeva-worshipers that Zoroaster condemned. However, "no satisfactory evidence has yet been adduced to show that, before Zoroaster, the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians, or that among them Mithra – or any other divinity – ever enjoyed a separate cult of his or her own outside either their ancient or their Zoroastrian pantheons."

Mithra is described in the Zoroastrian Avesta scriptures as "Mithra of Wide Pastures, of the Thousand Ears, and of the Myriad Eyes," (Yasna 1:3), "the Lofty, and the Everlasting... the Province Ruler," (Yasna 1:11), "the Yazad (Divinity) of the Spoken Name" (Yasna 3:5), and "the Holy," (Yasna 3:13). The Khorda Avesta (Book of Common Prayer) also refer to Mithra in the Litany to the Sun, "Homage to Mithra of Wide Cattle Pastures," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 5), "Whose Word is True, who is of the Assembly, Who has a Thousand Ears, the Well-Shaped One, Who has Ten Thousand Eyes, the Exalted One, Who has Wide Knowledge, the Helpful One, Who Sleeps Not, the Ever Wakeful. We sacrifice to Mithra, The Lord of all countries, Whom Ahura Mazda created the most glorious, Of the Supernatural Yazads. So may there come to us for Aid, Both Mithra and Ahura, the Two Exalted Ones," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 6-7), "I shall sacrifice to his mace, well-aimed against the Skulls of the Daevas" (Khwarshed Niyayesh 15). At the renovation of the world, Sraosha overthrows Aeshma, who will flee before the saoshyant (Yasht 19.95), but in the present the daeva flees before Mithra (Yasna 57.10; Yasht 10.97). Some recent theories have claimed Mithra represents the Sun itself, but the Khorda Avesta refers to the Sun as a separate entity – as it does with the Moon, with which the Sun has "the Best of Friendships," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 15).

The Avestan Hymn to Mithra (Yasht 10) is the longest, and one of the best-preserved, of the Yashts. Mithra is described in the Mihr Yasht, the Middle Persian term for the tenth book of the Yashts, as a powerful god and one of the Ahuras (lords). Mithra bestows wonderful blessings and brings disasters upon those who break contracts, fight against their contractual partners, and are not bound by oaths. Whether Mithra is angry or peaceful, he remains a benefactor of humankind, who, in turn, cannot live in peace without a love of truth. Mithra constantly observes and oversees everything that exists between heaven and earth. He embodies a sacred concept that is essential for a society in daily life. He is a deity for men of authority: the master of the house, the head of the village, the tribal leader, and the ruler of the land. The tenth book of Yashts shows the deity's close connections with the social and cosmic order, the securing of fertility and water supply, the connection to the sun, and the ethical conditions imposed on the faithful.

Mithra is mentioned in post-Sasanian Pahlavi Zoroastrian literature, such as the Bundahishn and the Revayats. These texts state that the great god Ahura Mazda created him to be the most important being worthy of veneration (yazata). He is charged with watching over the world and humankind on behalf of the creator god, traveling the world to spread kindness and friendship, and protecting lost souls from injustice.

In the apocalyptic Zand-i Wahman yasn (7.19-20), Mithra—together with Nairyosangha, Arshtat, Rashnu, Verethragna, Sraosha and a personified Khvarenah—assists the hero Peshotanu. In the fight, Mithra intervenes on Peshotanu’s side in the struggle against the daevas, who have exceeded their term of rule by 1,000 years, and defeats the daeva Aeshma, whereupon Aeshma and his followers flee back to Duzakh.

In tradition

Mithra

In Zoroastrian scripture, Mithra is distinct from the divinity of the Sun, Hvare-khshaeta (literally "Radiant Sun", from which the Middle Persian word Khorshed for the Sun). However, in Zoroastrian tradition, Mithra evolved from being an all-seeing figure (hence vaguely associated with the Sun) into a divinity co-identified with the Sun itself, effectively taking over Hvare-khshaeta's role. It is uncertain how and when and why this occurred, but it is commonly attributed to conflation with the Babylonian sun god Shamash and/or the Greek deity Apollo, with whom Mithra shares multiple characteristics such as a judicial function and association with the Sun. This characteristic is part of Mithra's Indo-Iranian inheritance in that the Indic Rigveda has solar divinities that are not distinct from Mithra, who is associated with sunrise in the Atharvaveda. Om Mitraya Namaha is a Hindu mantra chanted in the practice of Sun Salutation, wherein Mitra is a name of the god of the Sun, Surya.

In the Zoroastrian calendar, the sixteenth day of the month and the seventh month of the year are dedicated to and are under the protection of Mithra. The Iranian civil calendar of 1925 adopted Zoroastrian month-names, and as such also has the seventh month of the year named "Mihr". The position of the sixteenth day and seventh month reflects Mithra's rank in the hierarchy of the Divinities; the sixteenth day and seventh month are respectively the first day of the second half of the month and the first month of the second half of the year. The day on which the day-name and month-name dedications intersect is (like all other such intersections) dedicated to the divinity of that day/month, and is celebrated with a Jashan (from Avestan Yasna, "Worship") in honor of that Divinity. In the case of Mithra, this was Jashan-e Mehregan, or just Mehregan for short.

In classical accounts

Mithra

According to Plutarch, Mithra occupies the middle ground between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu, and is therefore called the mediator. De Jong offers an original translation of this passage: "That is why the Persians call the mediator Mithra," referring to the Pahlavi migāncīg ("mediary"), an epithet of Mithra. The same function of mediation with Druj is attributed to Sraosha in the Yashts. According to Benveniste, it originally belonged to Mithra.

Lucian mentions a golden statue of Mithra, and Nonnus notes the veneration of Mithra in Bactria and Babylon.

History

Median period

It has been suggested that Mithra was the great god of the Medes, an Iranian-speaking people who ruled a powerful kingdom in the first half of the 6th century BC, but this remains highly speculative in the absence of sources on the Median pantheon.

Achaemenid period

Although there is no known Mithraic iconography in the Achaemenid period, the deity is invoked in several royal Achaemenid inscriptions:

• In Artaxerxes II's (r. 404 – 358 B.C.) trilingual (Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian) inscription at Susa (A2Sa) and Hamadan (A2Hc), which have the same text, the emperor appeals to "Ahuramazda, Anahita, and Mithra protect me against all evil," and beseeches them to protect what he has built. Although the Behistun inscription of Darius I (r. 522 – 486 B.C.) invokes Ahura Mazda and "the Other Gods who are", this inscription of Artaxerxes II is remarkable as no Achaemenid king before him had invoked any but Ahura Mazda alone by name. Boyce suggests that the reason for this was that Artaxerxes II had chosen Mithra and Anahita as his patron/protector Divinities. The reign of Artaxerxes II saw a revival of the cult of Mithra and Anahita and even set up statues of his gods. • Mithra is invoked again in the single known inscription of Artaxerxes III, A3Pa, found at Persepolis. In that inscription, that emperor appeals to "Ahuramazda and the God Mithra preserve me, my country, and what has been built by me."

No reference to Mithra has been found in the Persepolis Administrative Archives. However, M. Schwartz gives a translation by R.T. Hallock "'... the priest received and utilized [16 marris of wine] for Ahura Mazda and the god Mithra and S(h)imut', the latter an Elamite god" further providing "the supplier and priest bear Iranian names."

The presence of Mithra is found in the names of people he helped to shape (Theophoric name), attested by various sources from the Achaemenid period, particularly among the Persian ruling elite; thus, in papyri unearthed at Elephantine in Upper Egypt (5th century BC) are found Mithra-dāta (Mithridates), “(child) given by Mithra” and Mithra-yazna, “he who sacrifices to/worships Mithra”. It is also possible that the cult of Mithra was introduced into Egypt during this period, or shortly thereafter, since two Greek papyri dated to the 3rd century BC apparently mention temples of Mithra (Mithraion). But this point is debated.

It has been suggested that the great Zoroastrian festival dedicated to Mithra, the Mehregan, took place as early as this period, but the arguments in this direction are limited, notably the mention of a festival called Mithrakāna during the Achaemenid period by Strabo, who wrote several centuries later. The month called Bāga-yādi, the month of "sacrifice to the god," appearing in the Persepolis Administrative Archives, may be that of the great festival of Mithra.

In Xenophon's Oeconomicus, Cyrus the Younger swears by Mithra, as does the Persian Artabazus. According to Curtius, Darius III invoked the sun, Mithra, and the sacred fire before the Battle of Gaugamela. In Plutarch's version, Darius III swears by "the great light of Mithras".

Seleucid period

The Seleucid kings repeatedly associated themselves with the image of the solar god Helios, which in their eastern possessions may reflect a desire to appropriate the image of local solar deities, including Mithra, and the legitimacy this conferred on the rulers in the eyes of their non-Greek subjects.

Parthian period

Mithra Temple of Maragheh an underground rock-cut sanctuary in Iran, near Varjovi village, built during the Parthian era for the worship of Mithra.

The cult of Mithra is poorly documented in this context, but it was clearly present and important in the Parthian Empire.

In official iconography of the Parthian period, Mithra would take on the features of Apollo, on a coin from Susa that seems to represent him, dating from the reign of Artabanus II (12-38/40 AD). Before him is a kneeling Parthian king. This scene is echoed in a speech by King Tiridates I of Armenia, a descendant of the Arsacids, to the Roman emperor Nero, narrated by Cassius Dio, in which the Armenian king mentions the fact that as a member of his dynasty he usually prostrated himself only before Mithra (and that he was prepared to make the exception of bowing before the Roman emperor). The youthful Apollonian-type Mithra is also found in images from other countries of Iranian culture in the Parthian period, such as Commagene in the Roman-Parthian border and the Kushan Empire on the Indo-Iranian border.

The popularity of the god in the Parthian Empire is also demonstrated by the presence of numerous personal names composed of the name Mithra in administrative excavations discovered at the site of ancient Nisa, Turkmenistan. Several Parthian kings bore the name Mithridates, derived from that of the god, indicating the important place the god held in the official pantheon of the Arsacid dynasty, possibly with the status of tutelary deity. The name Mithridates is also borne by numerous Anatolian rulers, from dynasties of Iranian origin in Pontus (including the famous Mithridates VI), Commagene, Armenia, and Iberia, indicating that he was still seen in these regions as the guarantor of royal authority.

Sasanian period

Mithra was apparently regarded as a divine protector of the Kushano-Sasanian rulers and gave them their power.

In late antiquity, Mithra (Middle Persian: Mihr) was one of the important gods in the Sasanian Empire, alongside Ahura Mazda and Anahita. Mithra is depicted standing on a star-lotus flower in the coronation scene of Ardashir II at Taq-e Bostan, holding a mace and wearing a halo. This is the only known pictorial representation of Mithra during the Sasanian reign. It is thought that the rule of Ardashir II was further legitimized by the god who guaranteed the security of treaties.

Gallery

Mithra

• Coin of Artabanus II of Parthia (c. 128–124 BC). The Hellenistic depiction on the reverse shows the king kneeling before an Apollo-like god, which is thought to be Mithra. • Mithras-Helios (right), with solar rays and in Iranian dress, with Antiochus I of Commagene (Mt. Nemrut, 1st century BCE) • Coinage of Kushan ruler Kanishka I with Miiro (Μιιρο), "Mithra". c. 120–150 CE • A marble relief of the tauroctony in later Roman Mithraism, 2nd – 3rd century CE • Investiture of Sassanid emperor Ardashir II (3rd century CE) bas-relief at Taq-e Bostan, Iran. On the left stands the yazata Mithra with raised barsom, sanctifying the investiture.

Identification with Zeus

Mithra

Coin of King Hermaios depicting on the obverse (front) the head of Zeus-Mithras, in profile and radiate.

In Hellenistic Bactria (Greco-Bactrian kingdom, c. 246-130 BC), Mithra seems to have been more assimilated to Zeus than to Helios or Apollo, which refers to his role as guarantor of kingship. The largest sanctuary in the city of Ai-Khanoum, the main site excavated for Hellenistic Bactria, could be dedicated to this Zeus-Mithras.

With the coin issues of Heliocles I (c. 145-130 BC) appears a bearded god, resembling Zeus, with sunbeams radiating from his head, which seems to attest to this syncretism between the Greek god and the local solar deity, namely Mithra. This figure is found again on issues of later kings, linked to the "Indo-Greek" sphere, who dominated Kapissa, Amyntas, and Hermaios (c. 95-70 BC). The fact that Mithra is identified with Zeus in these regions could confirm his role as supreme deity (whereas further west the assimilation occurs with Ahura Mazda).

Subsequently, the Kushano-Sasanian kings also featured Mithra, again in the guise of the bearded Zeus, named Miuro in one of the earliest issues of the dynasty.

In Manichaeism

Mithra

Persian and Parthian-speaking Manichaeans used the name of Mithra current in their time (Mihryazd, q.e. Mithra-yazata) for two different Manichaean angels.

• The first, called Mihryazd by the Persians, was the "Living Spirit" (Aramaic rūḥā ḥayyā), a savior-figure who rescues the "First Man" from the demonic Darkness into which he had plunged. • The second, known as Mihr or Mihr Yazd among the Parthians, is the "Messenger" (Aramaic īzgaddā), likewise a savior figure, but one concerned with setting up the structures to liberate the Light lost when the First Man had been defeated.

The second figure mentioned above, the Third Messenger, was the helper and redeemer of mankind, and identified with another Zoroastrian divinity, Narisaf (derived from Pahlavi Narsēh from Avestan Nairyō.saȵhō, meaning 'Potent Utterance', the name of a Yazata). Citing Boyce, Sundermann remarks, "It was among the Parthian Manicheans that Mithra as a Sun God surpassed the importance of Narisaf as the common Iranian image of the Third Messenger; among the Parthians the dominance of Mithra was such that his identification with the Third Messenger led to cultic emphasis on the Mithraic traits in the Manichaean God."

Unrelated to these Mihrs are Parthian and Sogdian Mytr or Mytrg. Although sharing linguistic roots with the name Mithra, Werner Sundermann established that those names denote Manicheanism’s equivalent of Maitreya.