Indo-European vocabulary

Indo-European vocabulary

The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.

Kinship

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>méh₂tēr "mother"</td><td>mother (< OE mōdor)</td><td>mōdar "mother"</td><td>māter "mother" ⇒</td><td>mḗtēr "mother" ⇒</td><td>mā́tṛ, mātar, mātā "mother"</td><td>Av mātar- "mother"; NPers mādar "mother"; "mamān"; "Nane" Kurd mak "mother"</td><td>OCS mati, mater- "mother"</td><td>Lith móteris "woman", motina "mother"; OPrus muti "mother"</td><td>Gaul. mātīr "mother", OIr máthir "mother"; W modryb "auntie"</td><td>mayr "mother"</td><td>motër "sister"</td><td>A mācar, B mācer "mother"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ph₂tḗr "father"</td><td>father (< OE fæder)</td><td>fadar "father"</td><td>pater "father" ⇒</td><td>patḗr "father" (> patriarch)</td><td>pitṛ, pitar, pitā "father"; Pitrs "spirits of the ancestors" (litt. "the fathers")</td><td>Av pitar- (nom. also pta, ta), OPers pita "father", NPers pedar; "Bābā"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr athair "father"; Welsh edrydd "paternal domain"</td><td>hayr "father"</td><td></td><td>A pācar, B pācer "father"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ǵénh₁tōr "parent"</td><td></td><td></td><td>genitor "parent" ⇒</td><td>genétōr "ancestor"</td><td>janitṛ "progenitor"</td><td>Av ząθar "progenitor, the Creator"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰréh₂tēr "brother"</td><td>brother (< OE brōþor)</td><td>brōþar "brother"</td><td>frāter "brother" ⇒</td><td>pʰrā́tēr "member of a phratry (brotherhood)" (> phratry)</td><td>bʰrā́tṛ, bhrātar, bhrātā "brother"; Rom phral "brother" (> pal)</td><td>Av brātar-, OPers brātar-, NPers brādar-, Ossetian ärvád "brother, relative", NPers barādar, Kurd bira/birader</td><td>OCS bratrŭ "brother"</td><td>Lith brõlis, OPrus brati "brother"</td><td>Gaul Bratronos (pers. name); OIr bráthair, W brawd (pl. brodyr) "brother"</td><td>ełbayr (gen. ełbawr) "brother"</td><td></td><td>A pracar, B procer "brother"</td><td>Lyd brafr(-sis) "brother"</td></tr><tr><td>swésōr "sister"</td><td>sister (< OE sweostor, influenced by ON systir)</td><td>swistar "sister"</td><td>soror "sister" ⇒</td><td>éor "cousin's daughter"</td><td>svásṛ, svasar, swasā "sister"</td><td>Av x̌vaŋhar- "sister"; NPers ḫwāhar, " Abji"; "Ham-Shire" "sister"; Kurd xwişk "sister"</td><td>OCS sestra "sister"</td><td>Lith sesuo, seser-, OPrus sestra "sister"</td><td>Gaul suiorebe "with two sisters" (dual) OIr siur, W chwaer "sister"</td><td>kʿuyr (kʿiṙ), nom.pl kʿur-kʿ "sister"</td><td>vashë, vajzë "girl" (< varjë < vëharë < PAlb swesarā)</td><td>A ṣar', B ṣer "sister"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>somo-ph₂tōr "sibling, lit. same-father(ed)"</td><td></td><td>ON samfeðra</td><td></td><td>homopátōr</td><td></td><td>OP hamapitar-</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>A ṣomapacar</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰugh₂tḗr "daughter"</td><td>daughter (< OE dohtor)</td><td>daúhtar "daughter"</td><td>Oscan futír "daughter"</td><td>θugátēr "daughter"; Myc tu-ka-te "daughter"</td><td>dúhitṛ, duhitar, duhitā "daughter"</td><td>Av dugədar-, duɣδar-, NPers doḫtar "daughter" Kurd dot "daughter"</td><td>OCS dŭšti, dŭšter- "daughter"</td><td>Lith duktė, dukter-, OPrus dukti "daughter"</td><td>Gaulish duxtir "daughter"; Celtib TuaTer (duater) "daughter"</td><td>dustr "daughter"</td><td></td><td>A ckācar, B tkācer "daughter"</td><td>HLuw túwatara "daughter"; ?Lyd datro "daughter"; CLuw/Hitt duttarii̯ata-; Lyc kbatra "daughter"</td></tr><tr><td>suHnús "son" (See also sewh₁-)</td><td>son (< OE sunu)</td><td>sunus "son"</td><td></td><td>huiós "son"</td><td>sūnú- "son"</td><td>Av hunuš "son"</td><td>OCS synŭ "son"</td><td>Lith sūnùs, OPrus suns "son"</td><td>? Celtib EBURSUNOS "son of Eburos (?)" ? Celt/Lus EQUEUNUBO (< ekwei-sūnu-bʰos) "to the sons on the horse"</td><td>ustr "son"</td><td>çun "boy/son"</td><td>A se, B soyä "son"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>putló- "son"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Osc puklo- "son"</td><td>paîs "son"</td><td>putrá- "son"</td><td>Av puθra "son" Kurd pis, put</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(h₂)népōts "nephew, grandson"</td><td>nephew; obsolete neve "nephew, male cousin, grandson" (< OE nefa)</td><td>OHG nevo "nephew"</td><td>nepōs (nepōtis) "grandson, nephew" ⇒</td><td>népodes "descendants"</td><td>nápāt- "grandson, descendant"</td><td>Av napāt-, naptar-, OPers napāt-, NPers naveh-, "grandson, descendant"; Kurd nevî "grandchild"</td><td>OCS netii "nephew"</td><td>OLith nepotis, OPrus neputs "grandson"</td><td>OIr nïa "sister's son", W nai "nephew"</td><td></td><td>nip "grandson, nephew"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(h₂)néptih₂ "granddaughter, niece"</td><td>niece; obsolete nift "niece" (< OE nift)</td><td>OHG nift "niece"</td><td>neptis "granddaughter"</td><td></td><td>naptī́ "granddaughter"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr necht "niece", W nith "niece"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dayh₂wḗr "husband's brother, brother-in-law"</td><td>OE tācor "husband's brother"</td><td>OHG zeihhor "husband's brother"</td><td>levir "husband's brother"</td><td>dāēr "husband's brother"</td><td>devṛ́, devará "husband's brother"</td><td>Past lewar "brother-in-law"</td><td>OCS děverĭ "brother-in-law"</td><td>Lith dieveris "husband's brother"</td><td>W daw(f) "brother-in-law"</td><td>taygr, tekʿr "husband's brother"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>snusós "daughter-in-law"</td><td>OE snoru "daughter-in-law"</td><td>OHG snur "daughter-in-law"</td><td>nurus "daughter-in-law"</td><td>nuós "daughter-in-law"</td><td>snuṣā- "daughter-in-law"</td><td>Old Ir. (s)nušáh Bactrian ασνωυο (asnōuo) NPers. sunoh / sunhār "daughter-in-law"</td><td>OCS snŭxa "daughter-in-law"</td><td></td><td></td><td>nu "daughter-in-law"</td><td>nuse "bride"</td><td>B santse "daughter-in-law"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wedʰ- "pledge, bind, secure, lead"</td><td>wed (< OE weddian "to pledge, wed")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>vadhū́ "bride"</td><td></td><td>OCS voditi "to lead"</td><td></td><td>W gwedd "yoke"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>swéḱuros "father-in-law"</td><td>OE swēor "father-in-law"</td><td>swaihra "father-in-law"</td><td>socer "father-in-law"</td><td>hekurós "father-in-law"</td><td>śváśura "father-in-law"</td><td>Av xᵛasura "father-in-law"; Kurdish xwesûr</td><td>OCS svekrŭ "father-in-law"</td><td>Lith šešuras "father-in-law"</td><td></td><td>skesrayr "father-in-law"</td><td>vjehërr "father-in-law"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sweḱrúh₂ "mother-in-law"</td><td>OE sweger "mother-in-law"</td><td>swaihro "mother-in-law"</td><td>socrus "mother-in-law"</td><td>hekurá "mother-in-law"</td><td>śvaśrū́- "mother-in-law"</td><td>Past xwāše "mother-in-law" Kurdish xwesû</td><td>OCS svekry "mother-in-law"</td><td>OPrus swasri "mother-in-law"</td><td>W chwegr "mother-in-law"</td><td>skesur "mother-in-law"</td><td>vjehrrë "mother-in-law"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂éwh₂os "maternal grandfather, maternal uncle"</td><td></td><td>awō "grandmother"</td><td>avus "grandfather"; avunculus "maternal uncle" ⇒</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Rus uj, vuj "uncle" (obsolete); Ukr vuyko "maternal uncle"</td><td>Lith avynas "maternal uncle", OPrus awis "uncle"</td><td>W ewythr, MBre eontr, MCo eviter "maternal uncle" (< PCelt awon-tīr "uncle"); OIr aue "descendant, grandchild"</td><td>OArm haw "grandfather"</td><td></td><td>B āwe "grandfather"</td><td>ḫuḫḫa-, Lyc χuga- "grandfather"; CLuw ḫu-u-ḫa-ti "grandfather" (abl.-ins.)</td></tr><tr><td>yemH- "twin; to hold"</td><td></td><td>ON Ymir</td><td>geminus "twin"; Remus "twin, Remus"</td><td></td><td>yáma- "twin; first man to die"</td><td>Av Yema</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr emon, Gaul Iemurioi "twin?"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁widʰéwh₂ "widow" < h₁weydʰh₁- "to separate"</td><td>widow (< OE widwe)</td><td>widuwō "widow"</td><td>vidua "widow"</td><td>ēḯtheos "widow"</td><td>vidhávā "widow"</td><td>viδauua "widow"</td><td>OCS vŭdova "widow"</td><td>OP widdewū "widow"</td><td>OI fedb "widow"; W gweddw "widow, widower"</td><td></td><td>vejë "widow"</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

People

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>mon- "human beings"</td><td>man (< OE "Mann")</td><td>manna "human beings"</td><td></td><td>Amazon < n̥-mn̥-g(w)-iōn 'man-less, without husband' (debatable)</td><td>manuṣya "human being"</td><td>Av manuš "human" NPers maneš "human habitude"</td><td>OES/OCS mǫžĭ "man"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mard "man"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰǵʰmṓ "person, human (litt. of the earth)" (See also dʰeǵʰom-)</td><td>Scots gome "person, man", OE brȳdguma "bridegroom"< dʰǵʰm̥mṓ</td><td>guma "man" < dʰǵʰm̥mṓ</td><td>homō "person" ⇒ < dʰǵʰm̥mṓ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OLith žmuõ "person"; Lith žmoná "wife"; OPrus zmunents "human"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ner- "man, hero"</td><td></td><td>ON Njǫrðr (name of a God)</td><td>Ner-ō (personal name), neriōsus "strong"</td><td>anḗr (andros) "man" (> Andreas, Andrew)</td><td>nár- (nom. nā) "man, person"</td><td>Av nar- (nom. nā) "man, person",Past nar "male, brave" NPers nar-, Kurd nêr "male animal, masculine"</td><td>OCS naravŭ "character, custom";</td><td>possibly Lith nóras "wish, want", narsa; narsùs "brave;" OPrus nàrs "courage"</td><td>W nêr "lord, prince, leader; hero"; Celt narto "strength"</td><td>ayr (aṙn) "man, person"</td><td>njer "man, person"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wiHrós "man"</td><td>werewolf (< OE wer "man")</td><td>waír "man"</td><td>vir "man" ⇒</td><td>hiérāx "a type of hawk"</td><td>vīrá- "man, hero"</td><td>Av vīra- "man, hero", Kurd mêr</td><td>OCS vira "wergeld"</td><td>Lith výras "man"; OPrus wirs "man, husband"</td><td>OIr fer, W gŵr "man"</td><td>heros "hero"</td><td>burrë "man"</td><td>A wir "young"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷḗn "woman, wife"</td><td>queen (< OE cwēn "queen, woman, wife")</td><td>qēns (qēnáis), qinō "woman, wife"</td><td></td><td>gunḗ (gunaikos) "woman, wife" < gʷun-eh₂ (> gynecology); Boet baná "woman"; Myc ku-na-ja (gunaia)</td><td>gnā (gnā́s-) "wife of a god", jánis, jánī "woman, wife"</td><td>Av gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, Past jinə́i, njlə́i "girl"; NPers zan "woman, wife"; Kurd jin "woman, wife"</td><td>OCS žena "woman, wife"</td><td>OPrus gena "woman, wife"</td><td>Gaul bnanom "of the women" (g. pl.); OIr ben (mná) "woman, wife" < gʷén-eH₂ (gʷn-eH₂-s), bé (neut.) "wife < gʷén; W benyw "woman"</td><td>kin (knoǰ) "woman"</td><td>zonjë "lady, wife, woman" < gʷen-yeH₂; Gheg grue, Tosk grua "wife" < gʷn-ōn</td><td>A śäṁ (pl. śnu), B śana "woman, wife"</td><td>Hitt ku(w)an(a) "woman"; Luw wanatti "woman, wife"; Lyd kãna- "wife", "woman"</td></tr><tr><td>pótis "master, ruler, husband"</td><td></td><td>-faþs "lord, leader"</td><td>potis "able, capable, possible"</td><td>pósis "husband"</td><td>páti "master, husband, ruler"</td><td>Av paiti, Parthian pet, OPers pāti "master, lord, husband, commander"</td><td>OCS gospodĭ "lord, master"</td><td>Lith pats "husband, one oneself"</td><td></td><td>hay "husband, chief of family"</td><td>pata "in possession of something"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>déms pótis "master of the house"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>despótēs "lord, master, owner" (> despot); despoina (< dés-pot-ni̯a) "lady" (fem. of despotes)</td><td>dámpati "lord of the house; (dual) husband and wife"; patír dán</td><td>də̃ṇg paitiś "lord"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʰóstis "guest, host, stranger"</td><td>guest (< OE giest); host < Lat. hostis; hospital, hostel, hotel < Lat. hospes</td><td>gasts "guest"</td><td>hostis "stranger, guest"; hostīlis "hostile"; hospes, hospit- "host, guest, visitor" < hostipotis < PIE gʰóstipotis (gʰóstis + pótis)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS gostĭ "guest"; gospodĭ "lord, master" < PIE gʰóstipotis</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>weyḱ- "settlement, to enter, settle"</td><td>-wick, -wich < Lat. vīcus</td><td>weihs "village, countryside"</td><td>vīcus "village, settlement"</td><td>oîkos "house, dwelling place"; oiko·nomía "management of household administration" (> economy)</td><td>viś "settlement, dwelling space"</td><td></td><td>OCS vĭsĭ "hamlet, village"</td><td>OLith viešė "settlement"; Lith viešas "public"</td><td></td><td></td><td>vis "land, country, place"</td><td>B īke "place, location"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wiḱpótis "master of the household; lord, clan chief"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>viśpáti "chief of a tribe or settlement, lord"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith viẽšpats "lord"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃rḗǵs "king, ruler"</td><td>bishopric, rich (< OE rīċe "king, dominion")</td><td>reiks, -ric (in personal names) "king"</td><td>rēx, rēg- "king" ⇒</td><td></td><td>rāj-, rājan "king" (> maharaja, Raj (as in British Raj))</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Gaul rīx "king" (In personal names. E.g., Vercingetorix, etc.), Welsh rhi "king"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tewtéh₂ "community, people"</td><td>OE þeod "people, nation"</td><td>Goth þiuda "folk"; ModGerm Deutsch < Proto-Germ þeudō</td><td>Osc touto "community"; Umbr totam "tribe"</td><td></td><td>Sans Tati तति (mass, crowd)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith tautà "a people"; OPru tauto "country"</td><td>OIr tuath "tribe, people" (e.g., Tuatha Dé Danann "tribe of goddess Danu"); Celt Toutatis (Teutates) "name of a god"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>?Hitt tuzzi- "army"; ?Luw tuta "army"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁lewdʰ- "people"</td><td>OE leode, lēod "a people, a group, nation"</td><td>OHG liut "people, population"</td><td>Proto-Italic louðeros > Latin līber "free; name of a deity", Faliscan loiferto; Pael loufir "free man"; Ven louderos "child";</td><td>eleútheros "free", Eleutherios "the liberator (epithet of Dionysus)"; Myc e-re-u-te-ro/a "a free allowance", e-re-u-te-ro-se "to make free, remit"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS ljudinŭ "free man"; Pol lud "people, folk"</td><td>Lith liaudis "folk"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Pronouns and particles

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>éǵh₂ "I"</td><td>I (< OE iċ)</td><td>ik "I"</td><td>egō "I" < egoH₂</td><td>egṓ, egṓn "I"</td><td>ahám "I" < egH₂-om</td><td>Av azǝm, OPers adam, Parth. az "I" < egH₂-om; Kurd ez "I (direct case)"</td><td>OCS azŭ As "I" "Ia"</td><td>Lith àš, OLith eš, OPrus as, Latv es "I"</td><td>es "I"</td><td>es "I"</td><td>u, unë "I" (-në possibly originally a suffix)</td><td>ñuk "I"</td><td>ūk "I" influenced by ammuk "me"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁me "me (acc.)"</td><td>me (< OE mē, mec < H₁me-ge)</td><td>mik "me (acc.)"</td><td>mē(d) "me (acc.)"</td><td>emé, me "me (acc.)"</td><td>mām "me (acc.)" < H₁mē-m, mā "me (acc. encl.)"</td><td>Av mąm "me" Kurd mi "me" Past mā "I [oblique case]"</td><td>OCS mę "me (acc.)" < H₁mē-m</td><td>OPrus men "me" < h₁me-m</td><td>OIr me-sse, mé, W mi "I"</td><td>is "me (acc.)" <? H₁me-ge</td><td>mua, mue "me (acc.)" < H₁mē-m</td><td></td><td>ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" < H₁me-ge, -mu "me (acc. encl.)"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁meǵʰye "me (dat.)", (h₁)moy "me (dat. encl.)"</td><td>me (< OE mē)</td><td>mis "me (dat.)"</td><td>mihi "me (dat.)"</td><td>moi "me (dat., gen. encl.)"</td><td>máhya(m) "me (dat.)", mḗ, me "me (dat. encl.)"</td><td>Av maibya "me (dat.)" (? not in Pokorny), me (Old Avestan moi) "me (dat. encl.)"</td><td>OCS mi (dat enc.) < (H₁)moi</td><td>OPrus maiy "me (dat. encl.)"</td><td>OIr infix -m- "me"; W -'m infixed accusative first person singular pronoun "me"</td><td>inj "me (dat.)"</td><td>meje</td><td></td><td>ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" < h₁me-ge, -mi "me (dat. encl.)"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁meme-, h₁mene- "of me, mine"; h₁mo-yo-, h₁me-yo- "my"</td><td>my, mine (< OE mīn < H₁mei-no-)</td><td>meins "my"; meina "of me"</td><td>meī "of me"; meus "my" < H₁me-yo-</td><td>emeĩo "of me"; emós "my"</td><td>máma "of me"; ma/má "my" < H₁mo-</td><td>Av mana, OPers manā "of me"; Av ma (m/n), mā (f) "my", NPers az āne man-; Kurd a/ê min</td><td>OCS mene "to me", moj/a/e (m/f/n) "mine"</td><td>Lith mane "me (acc.)", OPrus mais/maia "my"</td><td>W fyn "of me, my"; Breton ma "of me, my"</td><td>im "my"</td><td>im "my" (article i + em)</td><td>AB ñi "my" < Proto-Tocharian mäñi</td><td>miš "my" < H₁me-yo-</td></tr><tr><td>túh₂ "you" (nom. sg.)</td><td>thou (< OE þū "you")</td><td>þu "you"</td><td>tū "you"</td><td>Doric tú (standard sú)</td><td>t(u)vám "you";</td><td>Av tū "you" NPers to "you" Kurd tu, ti Past tə "you"</td><td>OCS ty "you"</td><td>Lith tù, OPr tu "you"</td><td>OIr tū, tu-ssu, tu-sso, W ti</td><td>du "you"</td><td>ti "you"</td><td>A tu, B t(u)we "you"</td><td>zik, zikka "you" < tega < te + egō</td></tr><tr><td>wéy "we"; n̥smé, encl. nos "us"</td><td>we (< OE wē), us (< OE ūs < PGerm uns < n̥s)</td><td>weis "we", uns "us"</td><td>nōs "we, us"</td><td>hēm- "we, us"; Aeol ámme "us" < asme < n̥sme</td><td>vay-ám "we" < wei-óm, asmān "us" < n̥sme + acc. -ān, encl. nas "us" < nos</td><td>Av vaēm "we", ahma "us", encl. nǝ̄, nā̊, nō "us"</td><td>Bulg nìe "we", OCS gen. nasŭ "ours" < nōs-oHom</td><td>OPr gen. nōuson "ours" < nōs-oHom</td><td>OIr ni "we, us" <? s-nēs, gen. ar n- < n̥s-rō-m; W ni "we" < nēs</td><td></td><td>na "we" < nŏs, ne "us" < nōs</td><td>A was, B wes "we"</td><td>wēs "we" < wei-es, anzāš "us", encl. naš "us"</td></tr><tr><td>yū́ "you (nom. pl.)"; uswé, usmé, encl. wos "you (acc./dat. pl.)"</td><td>ye (< OE gē "you (nom. pl.)"), you (< OE ēow "you (acc./dat. pl.)")</td><td>jūs "you (nom. pl.)", izwis "you (acc./dat. pl.)"</td><td>vōs "you (nom./acc. pl.)"</td><td>hum- "you (pl.)"; Aeol úmme "you (acc. pl.)" < usme</td><td>yūyám "you (nom. pl.)", yuṣmā́n "you (acc. pl.)" < y- + usme + acc. -ān, encl. vas "you (obl. pl.)"</td><td>Av yūžǝm, yūš "you (nom. pl.)", yūšmat̃ "you (abl. pl.)", encl. vā̊ "you (obl. pl.)"; Kur Win</td><td>OCS vy "you (nom./acc. pl.)", vasŭ "yours (pl.)"</td><td>Lith jū̃s "you (nom. pl.)", jū̃sų "yours (pl.)"; OPr iouson "yours (pl.)"</td><td>OIr sī, sissi "you (nom. pl.)" < sw-, uai-b "of you (pl.)" < ō-swī, NIr far n- "your (pl.)"; W chwi "you (nom. pl.)" < sw-</td><td>du, tu "you"</td><td>ju "you (nom. pl.)" < u < vos</td><td>A yas, B yes "you (nom. pl.)"</td><td>sumes < usme</td></tr><tr><td>só "that" (demonstrative pronoun)</td><td>the (< OE se), that (< OE þæt), there (< OE þēr, þǣr, þār)</td><td>sa, þata "the", "that"</td><td>sī "if", tum "then", iste "that" (near you), sum "him"</td><td>ho, to "the"</td><td>sáh, sā, tàt "that, the"</td><td>Avestan ha "this"</td><td>OCS tŭ "this, that"</td><td>Lith tàs "that"</td><td>OIr so "this", sí "she"; W hi "she"</td><td>ayd "that near you", da "that one near you" (ay- < PIE éy)</td><td>tërë "whole"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱe, ḱís, ḱos "this" (at first a deictic particle, later became a demonstrative pronoun)</td><td>he, she, it (< OE hē, hēo, hit), here (< OE hēr)</td><td>his "this"</td><td>cis "on this side, before"</td><td>ekeînos "that" (< PIE h₁e-ḱey-h₁enos)</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS sĭ "this", se "behold"</td><td>Lith šis "this", še "behold"</td><td>Primitive Irish koi "here"</td><td>ays "this", sa "this one" (ay- < PIE éy)</td><td></td><td></td><td>kāš "this" Palaic kii̯at "here"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁énos "that, yon" (demonstrative pronoun in late PIE)</td><td>yon (< OE ġeon < PIE Hyo-h₁enos)</td><td>jains "that, yon" (< PIE Hyo-h₁enos)</td><td>enim "truly"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS onŭ "that, yon" (if not from PIE h₂en-os)</td><td>Lith anas "he, that" (if not from PIE h₂en-os)</td><td></td><td>ayn "that, yon", na "that one, yon one" (ay- < PIE éy)</td><td></td><td>A äntsaṃ, B intsu "which, what kind of"</td><td>anniš "that"</td></tr><tr><td>ís, éy, h₁é (anaphoric pronoun)</td><td>OE ī- "the same"</td><td>is "he"</td><td>is (anaphoric pronoun)</td><td>ía "one" (f.)</td><td>ayám, iyám, idám "this"</td><td>Av aiiə̄m "this"</td><td>OCS i "he" (merged with PIE Hyós)</td><td>Lith jis "he" (if not from PIE Hyós)</td><td>OIr é "he", ed "it"; W ef, e, fe, o, fo "he"</td><td></td><td>ai "he", ajo "she"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>s(w)e- "oneself"; (reflexive pronoun)</td><td>self (< OE self, seolf)</td><td>swes (ref. gn. pn.), OHG sih (ref. pn.)</td><td>sē (ref. pn.)</td><td>hé (ref. pn.)</td><td>sva- (ref. pn.)</td><td>Avestan hva- (ref. pn.) Kurd xwe "itself, myself, etc."NPers xod "self, itself"</td><td>Bulg sèbe "oneself", OCS svoji (ref. gn. pn.)</td><td>Lith savè "oneself", OPrus swajs "my own, myself"</td><td>OIr fein (self, himself); W hun(an) "self, myself, himself/herself etc"</td><td>iwr self, himself/herself</td><td>vetë</td><td>A ṣn-i, B ṣañ "(one's) own"</td><td>Lydian s'fa- (ref. pn.), Carian sfes (ref. pn.)</td></tr><tr><td>kʷíd, kʷód "what"</td><td>what (< OE hwæt)</td><td>ƕa "what"</td><td>quid "what?", quod "what..., that..."</td><td>tí "what?", tì "what..."</td><td>kím "what"</td><td>NPers či, če "what"</td><td>Bulg kakvò "what", OCS čь-to "what?"</td><td></td><td>OIr cid "what?"</td><td>i (ēr) (< hi), inčʿ (< hi-nč) "what?"</td><td>çfarë "what?"</td><td></td><td>kuit (?) "what", kuit-ki "whatever"; Luvian kuit "what?"</td></tr><tr><td>kʷís, kʷós, kʷéy/kʷóy "who?" (interrogative pronoun)</td><td>who (< OE hwā < kʷoi)</td><td>ƕas "who?"</td><td>quis "who?", quī "who..."</td><td>tís, Thess kís, CyprArc sís "who?", tìs "who..."</td><td>kah, kā "who?"</td><td>Av kō (ka-hyā, ča-hyā) "who?, which?", čiš "who"NPers ke, ki "who?" kas "who, another person"</td><td>Bulg kòj "who", OCS kъ-to (česo) "who?"</td><td>Lith kàs "who, what"; OPrus kas "who"</td><td>OIr cia, W pwy "who"</td><td>о (oyr) "who?" "who?"</td><td>"A" kë "B" kush acc. "who?"</td><td>A kus, B kuse "who, which"</td><td>kuiš "who, which"</td></tr><tr><td>Hyós "who..." (relative pronoun)</td><td>yon (< OE ġeon < PIE Hyo-h₁enos)</td><td>jains "that, yon" (< PIE Hyo-h₁enos)</td><td>iam "already"</td><td>hós "who..., this"</td><td>yáḥ, yā́, yát "who..."</td><td>NPers -i, -e (ezafe)</td><td>OCS i "he" (merged with PIE ís), iže "who..." (-že < PIE gʰe)</td><td>Lith jis "he" (if not from PIE ís)</td><td>OIr -a (relative pronoun forming suffix)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>-kʷe "and; any"</td><td>though (< OE þeah < to-we-kʷe)</td><td>-(u)h "and", ƕaz-uh "whoever"</td><td>-que "and", quis-que "each one, whoever"; Venetic -ke "and"; South Picenian -p "and"</td><td>-te "and", tís te, hós-te "whoever"</td><td>-ca, káś-ca, kás-cit"whoever"</td><td>Av ča, OPers čā "and"; Av čiš-ca, OPers čiš-čiy "whoever"</td><td>Bulg če "but, and, because"; Old Czech a-če, ač "if"</td><td></td><td>OIr na-ch, MW nac "not" < "and not"; Lepontic -pe "and"</td><td>o-kʿ "whoever"</td><td>dhe "and"</td><td></td><td>Lydian -k "and"; Hitt kuis-ki, Lycian ti-ke "whoever"</td></tr><tr><td>-we, -wē "or"</td><td></td><td>(possibly) -u (question marker)</td><td>-ve "or"</td><td>ḗ, ēé "or"</td><td>vā "or"</td><td>Av va "or"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr nó, W neu "or" < PIE né-we</td><td></td><td></td><td>A pat, B wat "or"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>n̥- "not, un-"</td><td>un- (< OE un-)</td><td>un- "un-"</td><td>in- (archaic en-) "un-"</td><td>a-, an- "un-"</td><td>a-, an- "un-"</td><td>Av, OPers a-, an- "un-",</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr in-, ē-, an-, W an- "un-"</td><td>an- "un-"</td><td></td><td>AB a(n)-, am-, e(n)-, em-, on- "un-"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>né "not"</td><td>ne "not" (< OE ne)</td><td>ni "not"</td><td>nē "not, don't, lest"</td><td></td><td>ná "not"</td><td>NPers nā- "un-"; Kurd ni/ne/nek</td><td>OCS ne, ne- "not"</td><td>Lith ne- "not", ne "no"; OPrus ni- "not"</td><td>OIr ná "not"</td><td></td><td>nuk "not" < PIE ne h₁óy-kos</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>méh₁ "don't"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>mē "don't", "shouldn't", etc.</td><td>mā́ "don't"</td><td>NPers ma- "don't" (archaic)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>mi "don't"</td><td>mo "don't"</td><td>AB mā "not, un-"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(ne) h₂óyu kʷid "definitely not, never, not on your life"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>oukí, ou "not"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>očʻ "no, not"</td><td>as "neither, nor"</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Numbers

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>sem- "one, together"</td><td>same (< ON samr); OE sam- "together"; [also German zusammen]</td><td>sama "same"</td><td>sem-el "once", sem-per "always", sim-plex "single, simple", sin-gulī "one each, single"</td><td>heĩs, hén, mía "one" < sems, sem, smiH₂</td><td>sam- "together", samá "same, equal, any"</td><td>Av hama-, OPers hama- "any, all" Past sam "even, fine"</td><td>OCS samŭ "self, alone, one"</td><td>Lith san-, są- "with"; OPrus sa-, sen- "with, dividing"</td><td>OIr samlith "at the same time"; W hafal "equal"</td><td>mi "one"</td><td>gjithë "all" < PAlb semdza</td><td>A sas, B ṣe "one" < sems</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(h₁)óynos, (h₁)óywos "one"</td><td>one (< OE ān)</td><td>ains "one"</td><td>ūnus (archaic oinos)</td><td>oĩnos "one (on a die)", oĩ(w)os "alone"</td><td>(ēka- < oi-ko-; Mitanni-Aryan aika-vartana "one turn (around a track)")</td><td>Av aēva-, OPers aiva-, (NPers yek- "one, only, alone")</td><td>OCS inŭ "one, another"</td><td>Lith víenas, OPrus ains "one"</td><td>OIr ōen, W un "one"</td><td>andr-ēn "right there", ast-ēn "right here"</td><td>? Gheg tânë, Tosk tërë "all" < PIE tod-oino-; ??? një "one" < ňân < PIE eni-oino-</td><td>B -aiwenta "group" < "unit"</td><td>ās "one"</td></tr><tr><td>dwóh₁, neut. dwóy(H₁) "two"</td><td>two (< OE twā)</td><td>twái (fem. twōs, neut. twa) "two"</td><td>duo "two"</td><td>dúō "two"</td><td>dvā́(u) "two"</td><td>Av dva, fem. neut. baē "two"; NPers do "two"; Kurd diwa "two (fem.)"</td><td>OCS dŭva "two"</td><td>Lith dù, OPrus dwai "two"</td><td>OIr da, W dau (fem. dwy) "two"</td><td>erku "two"</td><td>dy "two"</td><td>A wu, B wi "two"(<PTC tuwó)</td><td>dā-, ta-; HLuw tuwa/i- "two"; Lyc kbi- "two"; Mil tba "two"</td></tr><tr><td>tréyes (fem. tisres, neut. tríH₂) "three"</td><td>three (< OE þrīe)</td><td>þreis "three"</td><td>trēs "three"</td><td>treĩs "three"</td><td>tráyas (fem. tisrás) "three"</td><td>Av θrayō, θrayas (fem. tisrō, neut. θri), OPers çi-, Parth hrē "three"</td><td>OCS trĭje "three"</td><td>Lith trỹs, OPrus tris, Latg treis "three"</td><td>OIr trí (fem. téoir), W tri (fem. tair, teir) "three"</td><td>erekʿ "three"</td><td>tre masc., tri fem. "three"</td><td>A tre, B trai "three"</td><td>tri- "three"; teriyas- (gen. pl.)</td></tr><tr><td>kʷetwóres (fem. kʷétesres, neut. kʷetwṓr) "four"</td><td>four (< OE fēower)</td><td>fidwor "four" (In Germanic influenced by pénkʷe "five")</td><td>quattuor "four"</td><td>téssares "four"</td><td>masc. catvā́ras (acc. catúras), neut. catvā́ri, fem. cátasras "four"</td><td>Av masc. čaθwārō (acc. čaturąm), fem. čataŋrō "four"; NPers čahār "four"; Kurd çwar</td><td>OCS četyre "four"</td><td>Lith keturì, OPrus ketturei "four"</td><td>Gaul petuar[ios] "four" OIr ceth(a)ir (fem. cethēoir, influenced by fem. tēoir "three") "four"; W pedwar (fem. pedair) "four"</td><td>čʿorkʿ, kʿaṙ (rare) "four</td><td>katër "four"</td><td>A śtwar, B śtwer "four"</td><td>(remodelled in Hittite and Luwian) Lyc teteri</td></tr><tr><td>pénkʷe "five"</td><td>five (< OE fīf)</td><td>fimf "five"</td><td>quīnque "five"</td><td>pénte "five"</td><td>páñca "five"; Mitanni-Aryan panza- "five"</td><td>Av panča "five"; Kurd pênc/pênz</td><td>OCS pętĭ "five"</td><td>Lith penkì, OPrus penkei "five"</td><td>Gaul pinpe-, pompe "five" OIr cóic, W pum(p) "five"</td><td>hing "five"</td><td>pesë "five"</td><td>A päñ, B piś "five"</td><td>Luw paⁿta "five"</td></tr><tr><td>swéḱs "six"</td><td>six (< OE siex)</td><td>sáihs "six"</td><td>sex "six"</td><td>héx, dial. wéx "six"</td><td>ṣáṣ "six"</td><td>Av xšvaš "six"</td><td>OCS šestĭ "six"</td><td>Lith šešì, OPrus uššai "six"</td><td>Celtib sues "six"; Gaul suexos "sixth"; OIr sé, W chwe(ch) "six"</td><td>vecʿ "six"</td><td>gjashtë "six"</td><td>A ṣäk, B ṣkas "six"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>septḿ̥ "seven"</td><td>seven (< OE seofon)</td><td>sibun "seven"</td><td>septem "seven"</td><td>heptá "seven"</td><td>saptá "seven"; Mitanni-Aryan šatta- "seven"</td><td>Av hapta, NPers haft-, "seven"</td><td>OCS sedmĭ "seven"</td><td>Lith septynì, OPrus septinnei "seven"</td><td>OIr secht, W saith "seven"</td><td>eawtʿn "seven"</td><td>shtatë "seven"</td><td>A ṣpät, B ṣukt "seven"</td><td>sipta- "seven"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁oḱtṓ(w) "eight"</td><td>eight (< OE eahta)</td><td>ahtáu "eight"</td><td>octō "eight"</td><td>oktṓ "eight"</td><td>aṣṭā́(u) "eight"</td><td>Av ašta "eight"</td><td>OCS osmĭ "eight"</td><td>Lith aštuonì, OPrus astonei, Latg ostoni "eight"</td><td>Gaul oxtu- "eight" OIr ocht n- "eight"; W wyth "eight"</td><td>utʿ "eight"</td><td>tetë "eight" < H₁ok̂tō-t-</td><td>A okät, B okt "eight"</td><td>Lyc aitãta "eight"</td></tr><tr><td>(h₁)néwn̥ "nine"</td><td>nine (< OE nigon)</td><td>niun "nine"</td><td>novem "nine"</td><td>ennéa "nine"</td><td>náva "nine"</td><td>Av nava, NPers noh- "nine"</td><td>OCS devętĭ "nine" < newn̥-ti- (Influenced by dékm̥t "ten")</td><td>Lith devynì (influenced by dékm̥t "ten"), OPrus newinei "nine"</td><td>OIr noí n-, W naw "nine"</td><td>inn "nine"</td><td>nëntë "nine" < newn̥-ti-</td><td>AB ñu</td><td>Lyc nuñtãta "nine"</td></tr><tr><td>déḱm̥t "ten"</td><td>ten (< OE tien)</td><td>taíhun "ten"</td><td>decem "ten"</td><td>déka "ten"</td><td>dáśa "ten"</td><td>Av dasa, NPers dah- "ten"</td><td>OCS desętĭ "ten"</td><td>Lith dẽšimt, OPrus desimtan "ten"</td><td>Gaul decam- "ten"; Celtib tekam- "ten"; OIr deich, W deg, deng "ten"</td><td>tasn "ten"</td><td>dhjetë "ten" < dék̂m̥t-i-</td><td>A śäk, B śak "ten"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wídḱm̥ti(h₁) "twenty" < dwi-dḱm̥t-i(h₁) "two tens"</td><td>(remodelled)</td><td>(remodelled)</td><td>vīgintī "twenty"</td><td>eíkosi "twenty"</td><td>viṁśatí "twenty", dviṁśatí "twenty"</td><td>Av vīsaiti, Ossetian insäi "twenty"</td><td>(remodelled)</td><td>(remodelled)</td><td>OIr fiche (fichet), OW uceint "twenty"</td><td>kʿsan "twenty"</td><td>zet "twenty"</td><td>A wiki, B ikäṃ "twenty"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱm̥tóm "hundred" < dḱm̥tóm</td><td>hundred (< OE hund, hund-red)</td><td>hunda (pl.) "hundred"</td><td>centum "hundred"</td><td>he-katón "hundred"</td><td>śatám "hundred"</td><td>Av satǝm "hundred"</td><td>OCS sŭto "hundred"</td><td>Lith šim̃tas, OPrus simtan "hundred"</td><td>OIr cét, W can(t) "hundred"</td><td></td><td>qind "hundred" (possibly borrowed from Latin centum)</td><td>A känt, B kante "hundred"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ǵʰéslom "thousand"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mīlle "thousand" < PIE sm-ih₂-ǵʰésl-ih₂</td><td>kʰī́lioi "thousand" < PIE ǵʰesl-i-yoy</td><td>sahásra "thousand" < PIE sm̥-ǵʰéslom</td><td>Av hazaŋra "thousand" < PIE sm̥-ǵʰéslom</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tuHsont- "thousand"</td><td>thousand (< OE þūsend)</td><td>þūsundi "thousand"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS tysǫšti "thousand"</td><td>Lith tūkstantis; OPrus tusimtons "thousand"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Body

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>krep- "body"</td><td>(mid)riff (< OE hrif)</td><td></td><td>corpus, corporis "body" ⇒</td><td></td><td>kṛ́p "beautiful appearance, beauty"</td><td>Av kéhrp "corpse, body"</td><td>HBS krěpati "to die, become a corpse"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>kurm "torso" and krep</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>káput ~ kapwéts "head"</td><td>head (< OE hēafod); OE hafela, hafola "head"</td><td>haubiþ "head"</td><td>caput, capitis "head" ⇒</td><td></td><td>kapā́la "skull, cranium; bowl"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>kapelë "hat"; Latin caput</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dáḱru, h₂éḱru "tear"</td><td>tear (< OE tēar, tæhher)</td><td>tagr "tear"</td><td>lacrima (archaic lacruma / dacrima) "tear" (> lachrymose)</td><td>dákru "tear"</td><td>áśru "tear"</td><td>Av asrū- "tear"; Kurd hêsir "tear"</td><td></td><td>OPrus assara "tear", Lith ašara "tear</td><td>OIr dēr, W deigr "tear"; Cornish dagr "tear"</td><td>artawsr "tear" < drak̂ur</td><td></td><td>A ākär "tear", B pl. akrūna "tears"</td><td>isḫaḫru "tear"</td></tr><tr><td>dn̥ǵʰuh₂-, dn̥ǵʰwéh₂ "tongue"</td><td>tongue (< OE tunge)</td><td>tuggō "tongue"</td><td>lingua "tongue" (archaic dingua) ⇒</td><td></td><td>jihvā́ "tongue" < ĝiĝʰwā, juhū́</td><td>Av hizvā < ĝiĝʰwā, OPers hizān, Parth ezβān "tongue", NPers zabān; Kurd izman "tongue"</td><td>OCS języ-kŭ "tongue" < n̥ĝʰū-k-</td><td>OPrus inzuws "tongue", Lith liežuvis "tongue"</td><td>teng "tongue"; W tafod "tongue, language"</td><td>lezu "tongue" (influenced by lizem, "I lick")</td><td>gjuhë "tongue"</td><td>A käntu, B kantwo "tongue" (kantwa < tankwa)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁ésh₂r̥, h₁esh₂nés "blood"</td><td></td><td></td><td>archaic aser, sanguis "blood" (< possibly h₁sh₂-én- obl. stem + guen) (> sanguine, etc.)</td><td>éar "blood"</td><td>ásṛj, asnás "blood"</td><td>OP ahr̥ "blood"</td><td></td><td>Lat asins, Ltg asnis (gen. ašņa) "blood"</td><td>īsarnom "blood-colored, iron"</td><td>ariwn "blood"</td><td></td><td>A ysār "blood"</td><td>ēsḫar (esḫanas) "blood"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵ(o)nH₂dʰos "jaw, cheek, chin"</td><td>chin (< OE c̣inn)</td><td>kinnus "cheek"</td><td>gena "cheek"</td><td>génus (génuos) "chin, jaw"; gnátʰos, gnatʰmós "jaw" < ĝnH₂dʰ-</td><td>hánu-ṣ "jaw" < ǵʰenu-s, gaṇḍa "cheek"</td><td>Av zānu- "jaw-" < ǵʰenu-s, OPers danūg < danu-ka-, Parth zanax "chin, jaw"; NPers gune "cheek", chune "jaw"; Kurd gup "cheek" Past žā́ma "jaw"</td><td></td><td>OPrus żauna "jaw", Lith žándas "cheek", žiáuna "gill"</td><td>OIr gi(u)n "mouth"; W gên, pl. geneu "cheek, chin"; Old Cornish pl. genau < genewes "cheeks, chins"</td><td>cn-awt "jaw, cheek"</td><td></td><td>A śanwe-m "jaw"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ǵónu, ǵnéws "knee"</td><td>knee (< OE cnēo)</td><td>kniu "knee"</td><td>genū "knee" (> genuflect)</td><td>gónu (Hom gen. gounós < gonwós) "knee", pró-kʰnu "with outstretched knee" < pró-gʰnu</td><td>jā́nu- "knee", pra-jñus "bow-legged"</td><td>Av zānu- acc. žnūm, dat./abl. pl. žnubyō "knee", fra-šnu- "holding the knee forward"; Parth zānūk, NPers zānū "knee"</td><td>Rus zvenó "knee"</td><td></td><td>OI glún "knee"</td><td>cunr, nom pl. cungkʿ "knee"</td><td>gjuni "knee" < Post-PIE ĝnu-n(o)-</td><td>A kanweṃ, B keni "two knees"</td><td>genu "knee"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵómbʰos "tooth, row of teeth"</td><td>comb (< OE camb)</td><td>OHG kamb "comb"</td><td></td><td>gómphos "bolt, nail"; gómphíos "molar tooth"</td><td>jámbha- "tooth, tusk; set of teeth (pl.)"; jámbhya- "molar teeth"</td><td>Pash žâma "jawbone"; Khot ysīmä "tooth"</td><td>OCS zǫbŭ, Ukr zub, Pol ząb "tooth"</td><td>Latv zùobs "tooth"; Lith žam̃bas "sharp edge"</td><td></td><td></td><td>dhëmb "tooth, tusk"</td><td>A kam, B keme "tooth"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃dónts, h₃dn̥t- "tooth"</td><td>tooth (< OE tōþ < H₁dont-)</td><td>tunþus "tooth" < H₁dn̥t-</td><td>dēns (dentis) "tooth" < H₁dn̥t- (> dental)</td><td>odṓn (odóntos) "tooth" < Proto-Greek edónt-, cf. Aeol. édontes "teeth" (> orthodontist, etc.)</td><td>dán, dántas "tooth"</td><td>Av dantan-, dātā "tooth"; NPers dandân "tooth"; Kurd diran, didan, dan "tooth"</td><td>Russ desná "gum" < H₁dent-sn-</td><td>OPrus dants "tooth", Lith dantis "tooth"</td><td>OIr dēt "tooth", W dant "tooth"</td><td>atamn "tooth"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃ésth₁, h₂óst- "bone"</td><td></td><td></td><td>os (ossis) "bone"</td><td>ostéon "bone" (osteoporosis, etc.)</td><td>ásthi (asthnás) "bone"</td><td>Av ast-, asti- (gen. pl. astąm, instr. pl. azdbīš) "bone" NPers ostoxan "bone"; Kurd hestî, hestû "bone"</td><td>OCS kostĭ "bone"</td><td></td><td>OIr asil "limb", MIr asna "rib" <? astonyo-; MW ass-en, asseu "rib", W asgwrn "bone" < ost-ko-</td><td>os-kr "bone"</td><td>asht, ahstë "bone"</td><td>B āy, pl. āsta "bone"</td><td>ḫastāi- "bone"</td></tr><tr><td>H₂ous- "ear"</td><td>ear (< OE ēare)</td><td>áusō "ear"</td><td>auris "ear"</td><td>oũs "ear"</td><td>ūṣa "cavity of the ear"</td><td>Av uši "both ears"; NPers guš "ear"</td><td>OCS uxo (ušese) "ear"</td><td>OPrus auss "ear", Lith ausis "ear"</td><td>OIr āu, ō "ear"</td><td>unkn, nom pl. akanǰkʿ "ear"</td><td>vesh "ear" < ōus, ōs-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃ókʷs "eye"</td><td>eye (< OE ēage)</td><td>áugō "eye"</td><td>oculus "eye" < ōkʷelo-s ⇒</td><td>ósse "both eyes"; ómma "eye" < óp-mn̥; ókkon "eye"</td><td>ákṣi (akṣṇás) "eye"</td><td>Av aši "both eyes"</td><td>OCS oko "eye"</td><td>OPrus aks "eye", Lith akis "eye"</td><td>OIr enech "face", W wyneb "face", Cornish enep "face"</td><td>akn, nom pl. ačʿkʿ "eye"</td><td>sy "eye"</td><td>A ak, B ek "eye"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁óh₃(e)s "mouth"</td><td>Scot ure (< OE ōr, ōra)</td><td>Nor óss "river mouth"</td><td>ōs, ōris "mouth" (> oral)</td><td></td><td>Ved ā́s "mouth, face"</td><td>Av āh "mouth"</td><td>OCS usta "mouth"</td><td>Lith úostas "mouth of a river, harbor"</td><td>OIr á "mouth"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>aiš, gen. iššāš "mouth"</td></tr><tr><td>ḱerd- "heart"; ḱred-dʰē- "to believe" (See also ḱréd·dʰh₁eti)</td><td>heart (< OE heorte)</td><td>haírtō "heart"</td><td>cor (cordis) "heart"; crēdō "I believe" < krezdō- < ḱred-dʰē- ⇒</td><td>kardíā, Homeric kradíē, Cypriot korízdā "heart" < ḱr̥d(y)ā; poetic kẽr (kẽros) "heart" < ḱḗr (> cardiac, cardiology. etc.)</td><td>hṛd "heart" < post-PIE ǵʰr̥d; hṛdaya, hārdi "heart";</td><td>Av zǝrǝd "heart", Pashto zṛə "heart" < post-PIE ǵʰr̥d;</td><td>OCS sŭrdĭce "heart", serda "medium, core"</td><td>OPrus siran "heart" (acc.), seyr "heart", serds "core", Lith širdis "heart", šerdis "core"</td><td>OIr cride "heart"; W craidd "center"; Gaul crid "heart"</td><td>sirt "heart"</td><td></td><td>A kri "will", B pl. käryāñ "hearts"</td><td>Hitt karz (kardias) "heart"; Luw zarza "heart"</td></tr><tr><td>h₃nebʰ- "navel, hub"; h₃nóbʰōl "navel"</td><td>navel (< OE nafola); nave (< OE nafu)</td><td>OHG nabalo "navel"; ON nafli "navel"</td><td>umbilīcus "navel"; umbō "elbow"</td><td>omphalós "navel; umbilical cord"</td><td>nā́bhi "navel, belly button; center"; nábhya "nave, center part of a wheel"</td><td>NPers nāf "navel", nāv- "deep" Past nom, naw "navel"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr imbliu "navel"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kréwh₂- "gore, blood (blood outside the body)"</td><td>raw "uncooked food" (< OE hræw "corpse, carrion")</td><td>ON hrár "raw"</td><td>cruor "thick blood, gore"; crūdus "raw, bloody", crūdēlis "cruel, rude" ⇒</td><td>kréas "flesh, meat"; kréa "raw flesh"</td><td>krávis- "raw flesh"; kravyá "raw flesh, carrion", krūrá "bloody, raw"</td><td>Av xrūra, xrūma "bloody"; vi-xrūmant- "bloodless"; xrvi.dru "of the bloody mace [of Aeshma]" YAv xrvišyant "grim, bloodthirsty"</td><td>OCS kry "blood"; Rus krov' "blood"</td><td>OPrus crauyo, krawian; Lith kraũjas "blood", krùvinas "bloody"; Latv kreve "coagulated blood, bloody scab"</td><td>OIr crúaid, MIr crū "blood", W crau "blood, gore"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>néh₂s "nose"</td><td>nose (< OE nosu)</td><td>ON nǫs "nose"</td><td>nāsus, nāris "nose" (> nasal)</td><td></td><td>nas- "nose"</td><td>Av nāh-, nā̊ŋhan-, OPers acc. sg. nāham "nose"</td><td>OCS nosŭ "nose"</td><td>OPrus nasi "nose", Lith nosis "nose"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pṓds, ped- "foot" (See also ped-)</td><td>foot (< OE fōt)</td><td>fōtus "foot"</td><td>pēs (pedis) "foot" (> pedal, etc.)</td><td>poús (podós) "foot" ⇒</td><td>pā́d- (padás) "foot"</td><td>Av pad-, OPers pād, Parth pāδ "foot" NPers pa "foot"; Kurd pê Past px̌a "foot</td><td>OCS pěšǐ "on foot", pęta "heel"</td><td>OPrus pida "foot", Lith pėda "foot"</td><td>OIr īs "below" < PIE loc. pl. pēd-su; W is(od) "below, under; lower (than)"</td><td>otn "foot", otkʿ "feet"</td><td>poshtë "below"</td><td>A pe "foot", B paiyye "foot"</td><td>pata-, CLuw pāta-, Lyc pedi- "foot"</td></tr><tr><td>tpḗrsneh₂ "heel, upper thigh"</td><td>OE fiersn "heel, calx"</td><td>fairzna "heel"</td><td>perna "gammon"; Spa pierna "leg"</td><td>ptérnē "heel, hoof; footstep"</td><td>pā́rṣṇi "heel; rear of the army; kick"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>paršna- "loins"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂(e)rmós "arm, forequarter"</td><td>arm (< OE earm)</td><td>arms "arm"</td><td>armus "shoulder, forequarter"</td><td>harmós "joint (anatomy); link; bolt"</td><td>īrmá- "arm, forequarter (of an animal)"</td><td></td><td>OCS ramo "shoulder"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃nṓgʰs "nail (finger or toe)"</td><td>nail (< OE næġel)</td><td>nagls "nail"</td><td>unguis "fingernail, toenail; claw; hoof"; ungula "hoof, claw; an aromatic spice"</td><td>ónux "claw, nail, hoof; a kind of aromatic substance; onyx (the gem)"</td><td>nakhá "nail"; áṅghri "foot; foot of a seat; tree root"</td><td>Npers nâxon "nail"</td><td>OCS noga "foot, leg"; nogŭtĭ "nail"</td><td>Lith nãgas "fingernail, talon"</td><td>Irsh ionga "nail", W ewin "nail"</td><td>ełung "nail"</td><td>nyell "nail"</td><td>A maku, B mekwa "nail"</td><td>ša-an-ku-wa- "nail"</td></tr><tr><td>yḗkʷr̥, yekʷnés "liver"</td><td></td><td></td><td>jecur (jecinoris) "liver"</td><td>hẽpar (hḗpatos) "liver"</td><td>yákr̥t (yaknás) "liver"</td><td>Av yākarǝ, NPers ǰigar, Pashto iná "liver"</td><td>Serbian jetra "liver", Serbian and Macedonian ikra "fish roe"</td><td>OPrus jakna, Lat aknas "liver", Lith jeknos</td><td>W (i)afu "liver"; MIr i(u)chair (i(u)chrach) "fish roe"</td><td>leard "liver"</td><td></td><td>A ykär, B yakär "liver"</td><td>Luwian ikkwar/n- "liver"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵʰésr̥ ~ ǵʰsrés "hand"</td><td></td><td></td><td>hir "hand" (rare, anatomical)</td><td>kheír "hand" (> chiropractor, surgery (chirurgy), enchiridion, etc.)</td><td>hás-ta "hand"</td><td>Av zas-ta "hand", NPers dast "hand"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>jeṙ "hand, arm"</td><td>dorë "hand"</td><td>A tsar, B ṣar "hand"</td><td>keššar "hand", Luwian īssaris "hand"</td></tr><tr><td>méh₂r̥ ~ mh₂én- ~ mh₂ntéh₂ "hand, the pointing one"</td><td>mound (< OE mund "hand, hand of protection, protector)</td><td>Ger vormund "legal guardian"</td><td>manus, manūs "hand" ⇒</td><td>márē "hand" (dubious)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>manii̯aḫḫ-i, "to distribute, entrust"</td></tr><tr><td>bʰeh₂ǵʰús "arm, trunk"</td><td>bough (< OE bōg)</td><td>Ger Bug "shoulder joint", ON bógr "shoulder"</td><td>fagus "beech tree"</td><td>pêkhus "forearm"</td><td>bāhú "arm"</td><td>NPers bāzū "arm"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃bʰrúHs "eyebrow"</td><td>brow, Scot broo (< OE brū)</td><td>ON brún "sharp edge; eyebrow"</td><td></td><td>ophrū́s "eyebrow"</td><td>bhrū́ "eyebrow"</td><td>NPers abrū "eyebrow"</td><td>OCS bry "eyebrow"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>péth₂r̥ "wing, feather" (See also peth₂-)</td><td>feather (< OE feþer)</td><td>OHG fedara "feather" ON fjǫðr "feather"</td><td>penna < petna "wing; feather; quill pen" (> pen)</td><td>pterón "feather, wing; winged creature"</td><td>pát·tra- "wing, pinion, feather; leaf, petal (as the plumage of a tree)"</td><td>Av Karšiptar (Karšift) "black-winged" NPers par "feather"</td><td>OCS perije "feather"</td><td></td><td>W adar "birds", W adain "wing"</td><td>trnum "to fly"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Animals

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>éḱwos, h₁éḱwos "horse, fast animal"</td><td>OE eoh "horse"</td><td>aíƕa- "horse"</td><td>equus "horse" (< equos)</td><td>híppos "horse"; Myc i-qo "horse" ( < ïkkʷos)</td><td>áśva- "horse"; Mitanni-Aryan aššu- "horse"</td><td>Av aspa-, OPers asa- "horse"; Ossetian yäfs "horse" < yéḱwos; NPers asp "horse"; Kurd hesp "horse"</td><td>OCS jastrębъ "hawk" (literally "a fast bird")</td><td>OPrus aswīnan "mare's milk", Lith ašva "mare</td><td>OIr ech; W ebol "foal, colt" (< MW ebawl < PBryth ebọl, < PC ep-ālos).</td><td>ēš "donkey"</td><td></td><td>A yuk, B yakwe "horse"</td><td>Luwian ásùwa "horse"; Lycian esbe "horse"</td></tr><tr><td>gʷṓws "cattle"</td><td>cow (< OE cū)</td><td>Old Saxon kō, OHG chuo "cow"</td><td>bōs (bovis) "cattle"; Umbrian acc. bum "cow"</td><td>boũs, Dor bõs (bo(w)ós) "cattle, cow"</td><td>gáus (gṓs) "cow"</td><td>Av gāuš (gāuš) "cow"; NPers gāv "cow"; Kurd ga "cow" Past ğwā "cow"</td><td>Croatian gòvedo "cattle" < PSlav govędo; OCS gu-mǐno "threshing floor"</td><td>Latvian gùovs "cow"</td><td>OIr bó (bóu/báu) "cow"; Boand < Proto-Celtic bowo-windā "white cow (or) cow-finder" Boyne OW buch "cow" < boukkā, bu-gail "cowherd" < gʷou-kʷolyos</td><td>kov "cow"</td><td>ka "ox"</td><td>A ko "cow", B keu "cow"</td><td>HierLuv wawa-, Lycian wawa-, uwa- "cow"; ?Pal kuwa(w)- "bull"</td></tr><tr><td>péḱu "livestock"</td><td>fee; fief; feud (< OE feoh "livestock, property, money");</td><td>faihu "property, possessions, wealth, riches, money"</td><td>pecū "cattle, domestic animals"; pecūnia "money" ⇒</td><td></td><td>páśu, paśú "livestock"</td><td>Av pasu "livestock", Past psə "sheep, cattle"</td><td>OCS pasti "to herd, pasture"</td><td>OLith pekus "cattle"</td><td></td><td>asr "wool"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂éwis "bird" (See also h₂ōwyó·m)</td><td></td><td></td><td>avis "bird" (> aviary, aviation, etc.); auceps "bird-catcher; fowler; eavesdropper"; LL avicellus, aucellus "little bird" > Fre oiseau; avispex, later, auspex "augur (from watching the flight of birds)" ⇒</td><td>āetós "eagle; omen"; oiōnós "large bird, bird of prey; omen; bird used in augury"; oiōnoskópos "augur (from the flight of birds)"; oiōnistḗrion "place for watching bird flight; omen"</td><td>ví "bird"</td><td>Av vīš "bird"</td><td></td><td></td><td>W hwyad "ducks"</td><td>hav "chicken"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ówis "sheep"</td><td>ewe (< OE ēow "sheep", ēowu "ewe")</td><td>awistr "sheepfold"; OHG ouwi, ou "sheep"</td><td>ovis "sheep"</td><td>ó(w)is "sheep"</td><td>ávi- "sheep"</td><td>Wakhi yobc "ewe" < PIran āvi-či-</td><td>Bulg ovèn "ram", OCS ovĭ-ca "ewe"</td><td>OPrus awwins "ram", Lith avis "female sheep" avinas "ram"</td><td>OIr ōi "sheep"; W ewig "deer"</td><td>hov-iw "shepherd"</td><td></td><td>B eye "sheep", ā(u)w "ewe"</td><td>Luvian hāwa/i-, Lycian χawa- "sheep"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ursus "bear"</td><td>árktos "bear"</td><td>ŕ̥kṣa- "bear"</td><td>YAv arša, Ossetian ars "bear"; NPers xers "bear"; Kurd hirç "bear"</td><td></td><td>Lith irštva "bear den" < h₂r̥tḱ-wéh₂</td><td>MIr art, W arth "bear"</td><td>arǰ "bear"</td><td>arí "bear"</td><td></td><td>ḫartaqqas (name of a beast of prey)</td></tr><tr><td>ḱwṓ "hound, dog"</td><td>hound (< OE hund "dog")</td><td>hunds "dog"</td><td>canis "dog"</td><td>kúōn (kunós) "dog"; Myc ku-na-ke-ta-i, Att/Ion kunegétes "huntsman" (litt. "those who guide dogs")</td><td>śvan(śunas) "dog"</td><td>Av spā (acc. spānǝm, pl. gen. sū̆nam); MPers sak; Kurd kuçik, se, sey; Wakhi šač "dog" Past spay "dog"</td><td>Bulg kùt͡ʃe "dog", OCS suka "bitch (female dog)"</td><td>OPrus sunnis "dog", Lith šuo "dog", Latv suns "dog", Ltg suņs "dog"</td><td>OIr cú (con), W ci "dog" Cú Chulainn litt. "hound of Chulainn" Cunobeline < Com. Britt. Cunobelinos "strong (?) as a dog"</td><td>šun "dog"</td><td>possibly qen (disputed, possible Latin loan)</td><td>AB ku "dog" (acc. A koṃ, B kweṃ)</td><td>Hittite kuwaš (nom.), kunaš (gen.); HierLuv suwanni "dog"; Pal kuwan- "dog"; Lyd kan- "dog"</td></tr><tr><td>múh₂s "mouse"</td><td>mouse, Scot moose (< OE mūs)</td><td>ON mús "mouse"</td><td>mūs "mouse"</td><td>mũs "mouse"</td><td>mū́ṣ- "mouse"</td><td>OPers muš "mouse" (? not in Pokorny; Pokorny has NPers mūš "mouse"); Kurd mişk "mouse"</td><td>OCS myšĭ "mouse"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mukn "mouse"</td><td>mi "mouse"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>uksḗn "ox, bull"</td><td>ox (< OE oxa)</td><td>auhsa "ox"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ukṣán "bull, ox"</td><td>Av uxšan "bull"</td><td></td><td></td><td>MW ych; MidIr oss "stag, cow"; MBret ouhen</td><td></td><td></td><td>B okso "draft-ox"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(s)táwros "bull"</td><td>steer (< OE stēor)</td><td>ON þjórr</td><td>taurus, Osc taurom (acc.)</td><td>taûros</td><td></td><td>stawra- "bull"</td><td>OSl turŭ</td><td>Lith taũras; OPr tauris "bison"</td><td>Gaul tarvos (taruos) "bull"; OIr tarb, W tarw "bull"</td><td>tuar "cattle"</td><td>tarok</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>suHs- "pig"</td><td>sow (< OE sū); swine (< OE swīn)</td><td>ON sýr "sow"</td><td>sūs "pig"</td><td>hũs, sũs "pig"</td><td>sū-kara- "pig"; Hindi sūvar "pig"</td><td>Av hū (gen. sg.) "pig", NPers xuk "pig"</td><td>Bulg svinjà "swine, sow"</td><td>Latvian suvẽns, sivẽns "piglet"</td><td>OIr socc sáil "sea pig"; W hwch "sow, swine"</td><td>khos "pig"</td><td>thi "pig"</td><td>B suwo "pig"</td><td>še-hu-u "pig"</td></tr><tr><td>wl̥kʷos "wolf"</td><td>wolf (< OE wulf)</td><td>wulfs (wulfis) "wolf"</td><td>lupus "wolf"</td><td>lúkos "wolf"</td><td>vŕ̥ka- "wolf"</td><td>Av vǝhrka- "wolf"; NPers gorg "wolf"; Kurd gur "wolf"</td><td>Bulg vɤ̞lk "wolf", OCS vlĭkŭ "wolf"</td><td>OPrus wilks "wolf", Lith vilkas "wolf"</td><td>OIr olc (uilc) "evil"</td><td>aghves "fox"</td><td>ujk < OAlb ulk "wolf"</td><td>B walkwe "wolf"</td><td>ulippana "wolf"</td></tr><tr><td>wl(o)p- "fox"</td><td></td><td></td><td>vulpes "fox"</td><td>alṓpēx "fox"</td><td>lopāśá "fox, jackal"</td><td>Av urupis "dog", raopi- "fox, jackal"; Kurd rovî, rûvî "fox"</td><td>OCS lisa "fox"</td><td>Lith lãpė "fox"; Latv lapsa "fox"</td><td>Bre louarn "fox" (< PCel loɸernos)</td><td>ałuēs "fox"</td><td>Tosk dhelpër, Gheg dhelpen "fox" (< dzelpina < welpina)</td><td></td><td>ulipzas (ú-li-ip-za-aš) "wolf"; Luwian ú-li-ip-ni-eš (nom. sg.), wa-li-ip-ni (dat.-loc. sg.) "fox"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵʰh₂éns "goose"</td><td>goose (< OE gōs), gander (< OE ganra)</td><td>OHG gans "goose"</td><td>(h)ānser "goose"</td><td>kʰḗn, Doric khā́n "goose"; Myc ka-no, ka-si (dat. pl.) "goose"</td><td>haṁsá- "goose" (cf. Hamsa)</td><td>Av zāō "goose" (? not in Pokorny); Sogdian z'γ "kind of bird", NPers ɣaz "goose", NPers ɣu "swan"</td><td>Bulg gɤ̞ska "goose", OCS gǫsǐ "goose"</td><td>OPrus zansi "goose", Lith žąsis "goose"</td><td>OIr gēiss "swan" W gwydd "goose"</td><td></td><td>gatë "heron"</td><td>B kents- "bird (goose?)"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂énh₂t(i)s "duck"</td><td>Scot ennet "duck" (< OE ened)</td><td>OHG enita "duck"</td><td>ānas (gen. anatis) "duck"</td><td>nessa, netta "duck"</td><td>ātí- "waterfowl"</td><td>Ossetic acc "wild duck" NPers ordak "duck"</td><td>Russ. utka "duck"</td><td>OPrus ants "duck", Lith antis "duck"</td><td></td><td></td><td>rosë "duck"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁élh₁ēn "deer"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>élaphos "deer"; Hom ellós "young of the deer"</td><td></td><td>Past osə́i "deer"</td><td>OSl jeleni "deer"; Russ oleni "red deer"</td><td>Lith élnias "red deer"; Lith élnė "hind" < H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk"</td><td>NWel elain "hind" < H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk" OIr elit "doe"</td><td>ełn "hind"</td><td></td><td>B yal, ylem "gazelle" B ylaṃśke "young gazelle"</td><td>aliya(n)- "red deer"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁eǵʰis "hedgehog"</td><td>OE igil "hedgehog" (< Proto-Germanic igilaz)</td><td>ON ígull "sea-urchin"</td><td></td><td>MycGr e-ki-no; ekhînos "hedgehog"</td><td></td><td>Oss wyzyn "hedgehog"</td><td>OSl jezĭ "hedgehog"; Rus ež "hedgehog"</td><td>Lith ežȳs "hedgehog"</td><td></td><td>ozni "hedgehog"</td><td>esh, eshk "porcupine, hedgehog"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰébʰrus "beaver" (See also bʰer-, bʰerH-)</td><td>beaver (< OE beofer)</td><td>OHG bibar "beaver"; OIc biorr "beaver"</td><td>fīber "beaver"</td><td></td><td>babʰrú "mongoose"</td><td>Av baβra- "beaver"</td><td>Pol bóbr "beaver"</td><td>Lith bebrùs "beaver"; Pruss bebrus "beaver"</td><td>Gaul bebru-; OIr Bibar</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃érō "eagle"</td><td>erne "a sea eagle" < OE earn "eagle"</td><td>ara "eagle"; OHG arn "eagle"</td><td>(Avernus "entrance to the underworld" (< AncGrk áornos "birdless"))</td><td>órnis "bird"; Myc o-ni-ti-ja-pi "decorated with birds(?)"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OSl orǐlŭ "eagle"; Rus orël "eagle"</td><td>Lith ăras, ĕras, erẽlis "eagle"; Latv ērglis, OPrus arelie "eagle"</td><td>MBret erer, MW eryr, MIr irar "eagle" (< eriro)</td><td>OArm oror "gull", MArm urur "kite"</td><td>orr "eagle, falcon" (rare)</td><td></td><td>Hitt ḫaran- "eagle"; CLuw ḫarrani(a/i) "a type of (oracular) bird"; Pala [ḫa-]a-ra-na-aš "eagle"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂éngʷʰis; h₁ógʷʰis "snake", "serpent", "eel"</td><td></td><td>OHG unc "snake"; engiring "maggot" (diminutive of angar "large larva")</td><td>anguis "snake, serpent, dragon"; Anguilla "eel"</td><td>ópʰis "serpent, snake"; énkhelus "eel"</td><td>áhi "snake, serpent; name of Vrtra"</td><td>Av aži "snake", Persian yağnij "grass snake" (archaic); Azhi Dahāka</td><td>OEstSl užĭ "snake", Rus už "grass snake"; Pol węgorz "eel"</td><td>OPrus angis "snake", angurgis "eel"; Lith angis "viper, adder", ungurys "eel"; Latv odze, odzs (dialectal) "viper, adder";</td><td></td><td>OArm awj "snake", iž, iwž "viper"</td><td></td><td>B auk "snake"</td><td>Illuyanka "mythical snake foe"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂eyǵ- "goat"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>aíx "goat"</td><td>eḍa "a kind of sheep"</td><td></td><td></td><td>(possibly) Lith ožỹs "goat"</td><td></td><td>ayts "goat"</td><td>dhi, "goat"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ōwyóm (a vṛddhi-derivative of h₂éwis) "egg"</td><td>ey (obsolete) "egg" (< OE ǣġ) (> Cockney "cock-egg"); egg (< ON egg)</td><td></td><td>ōvum "egg" (> ovum, ovary, oval, ovoid, ovulate, etc.)</td><td>ōión "egg, seed"</td><td></td><td>Past hagə́i "egg"</td><td>Pol jajo "egg"</td><td></td><td>W wy "egg"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂egʷnós "lamb"</td><td>yean "to give birth to" (< OE ēanian)</td><td></td><td>agnus "lamb"</td><td>amnós "lamb"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS agnę "lamb"</td><td></td><td>W oen "lamb"</td><td></td><td>enjë (dairy goat)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>laḱ-, laḱs- "to be spotted; salmon, trout"</td><td>lax (< OE leax "salmon")</td><td>OHG lahs "salmon"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Russ losos "salmon"</td><td>Lith lašiša "salmon"; Latv lasis "salmon"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>B laks "fish, salmon"</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Food and farming

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ǵr̥h₂-nó- "grain" (See also gʰreh₁-)</td><td>corn (< OE corn "grain")</td><td>kaúrn "corn"</td><td>grānum "grain" ⇒</td><td></td><td>jīrṇá-, jūrṇá- "old, worn out, decayed"</td><td></td><td>OCS zrŭno "grain"</td><td>OPrus zirni "grain", Lith žirnis "pea"</td><td>OIr grān, W grawn "grain"</td><td>cʿorean "wheat, grain, corn"</td><td>grurëTosk grun, gruni Gheg "grain"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʰreh₁- "to grow" (See also ǵr̥h₂-nó-)</td><td>grow (< OE grōwan); green (< OE grēne); grey, gray (< OE grǣġ); grass (< OE græs); groom (young boy, servant) (< ME grome)</td><td>grōdjan "to green, grow; plant"</td><td>grāmen "grass, turf; herb"; rāvus "gray, tawny"; herba "grass; weed; herb"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Kurd gewre, gir "big", gewre bûn "to grow, to get big", giran "heavy", girîng "important, major, essential" Past grān "expensive, hard"</td><td>OCS grěnŭ "green"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂éǵros "field"</td><td>acre (< OE æcer "field")</td><td>akrs "field"</td><td>ager (agrī) "field" ⇒</td><td>agrós "field"</td><td>ájra-"meadow"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>art "soil"</td><td>arë "field"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂erh₃- "to plow"</td><td>OE erian "to plow"</td><td>arjan "to plow"</td><td>arō (arāre) "to plow", arātrum "plow"</td><td>aróō "I plow" < H₂erH₃-oH₂, árotron "plow", aroura "arable land"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS orjǫ (orati) "to plow", ralo < ar(ə)dhlom "plow"</td><td>OPrus artun "to plow", Lith arti "to plow"; arklys "horse"</td><td>MIr airim "I plow", W arddu "to plow" < arj-; MIr arathar, W aradr "plow" < arətrom < H₂erH₃-trom</td><td>ara-wr "plow"</td><td>arë "arable land" H₂r̥H₃-uer-</td><td>AB āre "plow"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂melǵ- "to milk"</td><td>milk (< OE meolc, mioluc)</td><td>miluks (miluks) "milk"</td><td>mulgeō (mulgēre) "to milk" ⇒</td><td>amélgō "I milk"</td><td>mā́ršti, mā́rjati, mr̥játi "(he) wipes, cleans"</td><td>Av marǝzaiti, mǝrǝzaiti "(he) grazes (barely touches)"</td><td>OCS mlěko "milk", Russ. CS mŭlzu (mlěsti) "to milk"</td><td>OPrus milztun "to milk", Lith melžti "to milk"</td><td>W blith "milk, dairy produce; full of milk", MIr bligim "I milk" < mligim, melg "milk"</td><td></td><td>miel, mil "I milk"</td><td>A malke B malk-wer "milk"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>melh₂- "to grind"</td><td>meal (< OE melu); malm (< OE mealm)</td><td>malan "to grind"</td><td>molō (molere) "I grind"; mola "millstone; mill; ground meal, flour" ⇒ ; immolō "I immolate, sacrifice (lit. sprinkling flour on animals to be sacrificed)" ⇒ ; malleus "hammer, mallet" ⇒ ; milium "millet"</td><td>múllō "I grind"; malthakós, malakós "soft, tender; gentle; mild"; melínē "millet"</td><td>mr̥ṇāti, mr̥nati "(he) grinds"</td><td>Av mrāta- "tanned soft"</td><td>OCS meljǫ (mlětĭ) "to grind"; mlatŭ "hammer"; molĭ "moth"; mělŭ "chalk; fine ground substance"</td><td>OPrus maltun "to grind", Lith malti "to grind", malnos "millet"</td><td>OIr melim "I grind"; W malu "grind"</td><td>mał "sieve" mał-em "I grind, crush"</td><td>mjell "flour"</td><td>A malywët "you press"; B melye "they trample"</td><td>mallai "grinds"</td></tr><tr><td>kwh₂et- "to ferment, become sour"</td><td>OE hwaþerian "to roar, foam, surge"</td><td>ƕaÞō "froth, foam, scum"</td><td>cāseus "cheese" (> cheese)</td><td></td><td>kváthate "it boils"</td><td></td><td>OCS kvasŭ "leaven; sour drink" > Kvass</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>yew- "to blend, mix, knead"</td><td></td><td>ON ostr "cheese"; ysta "to curdle"</td><td>iūs "gravy, broth, soup; sauce; juice" > juice</td><td>?zōmós "soup, sauce; grease" ⇒</td><td>yūṣa- "soup, broth; water in which pulses are boiled"</td><td></td><td>Russ uxá "Ukha"</td><td></td><td>W uwd "porridge"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰrewh₁- "to boil; to brew"</td><td>brew (< OE brēowan); burn (< OE biernan, beornan); bread (< OE brēad); broth (< OE broþ)</td><td></td><td>ferveō "I burn, I'm hot" ⇒ ; fermentum "fermentation, leavening; ferment; anger"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS burja "storm"</td><td></td><td>Borvo "Gaulish deity of healing springs", W berwi "to boil"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷréh₂wō "quern, millstone"</td><td>quern (< OE cwerne)</td><td>qairnus</td><td></td><td></td><td>grā́van "stone, rock, stone for pressing out the Soma juice"</td><td></td><td>OCS žrĭny "millstone"</td><td></td><td>Bret breo, breou, W breuan "quern"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mélit, melnés "honey"</td><td>mildew (< OE mele-dēaw "honeydew")</td><td>miliþ "honey"</td><td>mel (mellis) "honey" (> mellifluous)</td><td>méli (mélit-) "honey"; Att mélitta "bee"; Myc me-ri, me-ri-to "honey"</td><td>milinda "honey-bee"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr mil, W mêl "honey"</td><td>mełr "honey"</td><td>mjal, mjaltë "honey"</td><td></td><td>milit "honey"; CLuw ma-al-li "honey"; Pala malit- "honey"</td></tr><tr><td>médʰu "honey", "mead"</td><td>mead (< OE medu)</td><td>midus "mead"</td><td>mēdus "a type of mead"</td><td>métʰu "wine"</td><td>mádʰu "sweet drink, honey"</td><td>Proto-Iranian mádu "honey, wine"</td><td>OCS medŭ "honey"; Bulg med "honey"</td><td>OPrus meddu "honey", Lith medus "honey", midus "mead" (via Gothic); Ltg mads "honey"</td><td>OIr mid "mead"; W medd "mead"</td><td></td><td></td><td>B mit "honey"</td><td>CLuw maddu- "wine" (originally "sweet drink")</td></tr><tr><td>tuh₂rós "cheese"</td><td>butter (< Gk. boútūros "cow cheese")</td><td></td><td></td><td>tūrós "cheese"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>séh₂ls "salt"</td><td>salt (< OE sealt)</td><td>salt "salt"</td><td>sāl (salis) "salt" ⇒</td><td>háls (halós) "salt"</td><td>sal-ilá- "salty"</td><td></td><td>OCS solǐ "salt"; OCS sladŭkŭ "sweet"; Russ sólod "malt"</td><td>OPrus sals "salt", Lith saldus "sweet</td><td>OIr salann, W halen "salt"</td><td>ał "salt"</td><td>ngjel-bëtë, ngjel-mëtë "salty", njel-m "to be salty"</td><td>A sāle, B salyiye "salt"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>seh₁- "to sow (seed)", séh₁mn̥ "seed"</td><td>sow (< OE sāwan), seed (< OE sēd "that which is sown")</td><td>saian "to sow"; OHG sāmo "seed"</td><td>serō (serere) "to sow" < si-sH₁-oH₂, sēmen "seed" ⇒</td><td></td><td>sasá- "corn, herb, grass", sasyá- "corn, grain, fruit, crop of corn", sī́ra- "Saatpflug" (seed plow?)</td><td></td><td>OCS sějǫ (sějati) "to sow", sěmę "seeds"</td><td>OPrus situn "to sow", simen "seed", Lith sėti "to sow", sėkla "seed", sėmuo "linseed"</td><td>OIr sīl, W hil "seed" < seH₁-lo-</td><td>sermn "seed"</td><td></td><td></td><td>isḫūwāi "(he) sows"</td></tr><tr><td>yugóm "yoke" (See also yewg-)</td><td>yoke (< OE ġeoc)</td><td>juk "yoke"</td><td>iugum "yoke"</td><td>zugón "yoke"</td><td>yugá·m "yoke"</td><td>Av yaoj-, yuj- "to harness" Past yə́wa "plough"</td><td>OCS igo "yoke"</td><td>OPrus jugtun "yoke", Lith jungas "yoke"</td><td>W iau "yoke"</td><td>luc "yoke"</td><td></td><td>A yokäm "door"</td><td>yugan "yoke"</td></tr><tr><td>yéwos "cereal, grain; spelt, barley"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Epic zeiā́ "einkorn wheat"; Cretan deaí "barley"</td><td>yáva "grain, cereal; barley"</td><td>Av yauua- "cereal"; Pers jow "barley, grain"; Oss jäv "corn, grain"</td><td>Rus ovín "barn, granary"; Pol jewnia, jownia (dialectal) "granary"</td><td>Lith jãvas "a type of cereal"; javaĩ (pl.) "cereals"; Latv javs, java "infused (with fermentation)"</td><td>Ir eorna "barley"</td><td></td><td></td><td>B yap "dressed barley"</td><td>e(u)wa(n) "cereal (a kind of barley)"</td></tr><tr><td>mḗms "meat"</td><td></td><td>mimz "flesh"</td><td>membrum "limb, member" < mēms-rom "flesh" ⇒</td><td></td><td>mā́ṃs, māmsá- "meat"</td><td></td><td>OCS męso "meat"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mis "meat"</td><td>mish"meat"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ébōl "apple"</td><td>apple (< OE appel)</td><td>apel</td><td>(Osc Abella "town name")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS ablŭko "apple"</td><td>Lith obuolys "apple", OPr wobalne "apple"; Latv ābols "apple (fruit)", ābele "apple tree"</td><td>Gaul Aballo "place name"; OIr aball, W afall, OBr aball(en) "apple tree"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Bodily functions and states

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h₂enh₁- "to breathe"</td><td>OE ōþian "breathe hard" < PGerm anþōjanã</td><td>uz-anan "to expire"; ON anda "to breathe"; DE atmen "to breathe"</td><td>anima "breath"</td><td>ánemos "wind"; Anemoi "(deified) winds"</td><td>ániti "(he) breathes"; ātmán "breath, soul, life"</td><td>Av ā̊ntya, parā̊ntya (gen.) "breathing in and out"; Kurd henase "breath"; henas dan "to breath"</td><td>OCS vonja "smell" < h₂en-yeh₂</td><td></td><td>OIr anāl "breath" < h₂enh₁-tlo- ; W anadl "breath"</td><td>hołm "wind", anjn "person"</td><td>Gheg âj Tosk ēnj "I swell"</td><td>AB āñm- "spirit", B añiye "breath", B anāsk- "breathe in"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>swep- "to sleep", swépnos "dream (n.)"</td><td>archaic sweven "dream, vision" (< OE swefn); NoEng sweb "to swoon" (< OE swebban "to put to sleep, lull")</td><td>ON sofa "sleep (v.)"; Svafnir "Sleep-Bringer (a name of Odin)"</td><td>somnus "sleep (n.)"; sōpiō (v.) "make asleep"</td><td>húpnos "sleep (n.)"; Hypnos "god of sleep"</td><td>svápna- "sleep, dream (n.)"</td><td>Av xᵛafna- "sleep (n.)" NPers xwãb- "sleep"; Kurd xew "sleep" Past xob "dream, sleeping"</td><td>OCS sŭpati "sleep (v.)", sŭnŭ "sleep (n.), dream (n.)"</td><td>OPrus supnas "dream", Lith sapnas "dream"</td><td>OIr sūan, W hun "sleep (n.)"</td><td>kʿnem "I sleep", kʿun "sleep (n.)"</td><td>gjumë "sleep (n.)"</td><td>TA ṣpäṃ, TB ṣpane "sleep (n.), dream (n.)"</td><td>sup-, suppariya- "to sleep"</td></tr><tr><td>der-, drem- "to sleep"</td><td></td><td></td><td>dormiō "I sleep"; ⇒</td><td>darthánō "I sleep" (epic)</td><td>drā́yati "(s/he) sleeps"; nidrā́ "sleep, slumber, sleepiness, sloth"</td><td></td><td>OCS drěmati "to doze, drowse, slumber"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰewdʰ- "to be awake, be aware"</td><td>bid (< OE bēodan); bede (< OE bēden); bead (< OE bedu); bode (< OE bodian)</td><td>anabiudan; DE bitte "please" (< bitten, "to beg")</td><td></td><td>punthánomai "I learn"</td><td>bódhati "(s/he) is awake"; bodháyati "(s/he) awakens, arouses"; buddhá- "awake"</td><td>Av baoδaiti "to be aware", Past póha "understand" NPers bikdar "awake"</td><td>OCS bljusti "to watch"; buditi "to wake (someone) up"; bŭždrĭ "alert, cheerful";</td><td>Lith budėti "to stay awake, to guard"; busti "to wake up"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sweyd- "sweat"</td><td>sweat (< OE swǣtan "to sweat")</td><td>ON sveiti</td><td>sūdor "sweat (n.)"</td><td>(e)ĩdos "sweat (n.)"</td><td>svḗda- "sweat (n.)"</td><td>Av xᵛaēda- "sweat (n.)"; Kurd xwê, xoy "sweat" Past xoẓ̌ "sweet"</td><td></td><td>Latvian sviêdri (pl.) "sweat (n.)"</td><td>W chwys "sweat (n.)" < swidso-</td><td>kʿirtn "sweat (n.)"</td><td>dirsë, djersë "sweat (n.)" < swí-drōxty-</td><td>B syā-lñe "sweating" < swid-yé-</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁ed- "to eat"</td><td>eat (< OE etan)</td><td>itan "to eat"</td><td>edō (ēsse) "to eat", ēst "(he) eats"</td><td>édō "I eat", Homeric athematic infinitive édmenai "to eat"</td><td>ádmi "I eat", átti "(he) eats"</td><td>Av subj. aδāiti "(he) should eat"</td><td>OCS jamĭ "I eat" < H₁ēd-mi, jastŭ "(he) eats"</td><td>OPrus istun "to eat", Lith ėsti "to eat (as or like an animal)</td><td>OIr ci-ni estar "although he doesn't eat"; W ys "eats" < H₁ed-ti</td><td>utem "I eat" < ōd-</td><td>ha "to eat"</td><td></td><td>ēdmi "I eat"</td></tr><tr><td>peh₃- "to drink"</td><td>potable (< OF potable) imbibe (< Lat. bibere "to drink" via OF imbiber) potion, poison (<Lat. potio, potionis "a drink" via OF pocion, poison)</td><td></td><td>bibō (bibere) "to drink", pōtus "drink (n.)"; pō·culo- < pō·clo- < pō·tlo- "beaker" (Compare Skt pā·tra-)</td><td>pī́nō, pépomai "I drink"</td><td>pā́ti, píbati "(he) drinks"; pā·tra- "cup, vessel"</td><td>Av vispo-pitay- "alltränkend" giving water/drinks to all</td><td>OCS pijǫ (piti) "to drink", pivo "drink, beer, beverage"</td><td>OPrus putun "to drink", puja "a party", Lith puota "party"</td><td>OIr ibid "drinks" < pibeti; W yfwn "we drink"</td><td>əmpem "I drink"</td><td>pī "I drink"</td><td></td><td>pāsi "he swallows"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵews- "to test, to taste"</td><td>choose (< OE ċēosan)</td><td>Goth kiusan "to prove, to test", kausjan "taste"; OHG kiosan "choose"</td><td>gustus "taste"</td><td>geúomai "taste"</td><td>juşate, joşati "enjoys"</td><td>Av zaoś- "be pleased"</td><td>OCS (vŭ)kušati "to offer a meal, to give for tasting"</td><td></td><td>OIr do-goa "choose"</td><td></td><td>zgjedh "choose" desha "I loved"; dashje "liking, taste, preference" (< PAlb dāusnja)</td><td></td><td>kukuš(-zi) "taste"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵenh₁- "to beget, give birth, produce"</td><td>kin (< OE cynn "kind, sort, family, generation") (> kindred); kind (< OE (ġe)cynd "generation, nature, race, kind"); king (< OE cyning); OE cennan "produce"</td><td>-kunds "born"; knoþs "race, people"; OHG kind "child"; Ger könig, Dut koning "king" (< PGmc kuningaz = kunją "kin" + -ingaz "from, belonging to") (> OCS kŭnędzĭ "prince"; Lith kùnigas "priest"; Fin, Est kuningas "king" (esp. in chess))</td><td>(g)nāscor "I am born, begotten; grow, spring forth"; gignō "I beget, bear, bring forth, engender" ⇒ ; (g)natus "born, arisen, made" ⇒ ; nāscēns "being born, arising; emerging" ⇒ ; nātīvus "created; imparted by birth" ⇒ ; nātīvitās "birth" ⇒ ; nātūra "nature, quality, essence" ⇒ ; nātiō "birth; race, class; nation, folk" ⇒ ; nātālis "relating to birth, natal" ⇒ ; genus (generis) "birth, origin; kind; species; (grammar) gender" ⇒ ; gēns (gentis) "tribe; folk, family; Roman clan" ⇒ ; ingēns "huge, vast; extraordinary"; genitus "begotten, engendered" ⇒ ; genius "inborn trait, innate character; talent, wits" (> genius); ingenuus "natural, indigenous; freeborn" ⇒ ; ingenium "innate quality, nature, disposition; natural capacity; talent" ⇒ ; indigenus = indu (inside) + genus "native, indigenous" (> indigenous); genimen "product, fruit; progeny"; germen (germinis) "shoot, sprout; germ, origin, seed; fetus" ⇒ ; genitor "begetter, father, sire"; genetrīx "begetter, mother"; naevus "birthmark, mole" (> Lat Gnaeus); genitālis "relation to birth, generation; productive" ⇒</td><td>geínomai "I am born; I beget"; gígnomai "I come into being; become"; gonḗ "offspring; seed" (> gonad); geneā́ "birth; race, descent; generation; offspring" (> genealogy, etc.); gnōtós "kinsman"; génos "offspring, descendant, family; nation, gender"; génna, génnā "descent, lineage; origin, offspring"; génesis "origin, source, manner of birth" ⇒ ; gónos "fruit, product; race, descent; begetting; seed"; genétēs, genétōr "begetter, ancestor; father"</td><td>jánati "(she) gives birth"; jáyate "is born; becomes"; já-, -ja- "born; born of, begotten from", e.g., dvi·já- "twice-born"; jantú "child, offspring; creature"; jñāt́í "kinsman, relative"; jananī "mother, birth-giver"; jána- "people, person, race"; jánana- "begetting, birth"; jánas "race, class, genus"; jánman, janmá- "birth, life"; jániman "generation, birth, origin"; janitṛ́ "begetter, father, parent"; jánitrī "begetter, mother"; janátā "people, folk, generation"; jātí "birth, form of existence fixed at birth, position assigned by birth, rank, lineage, caste"</td><td>Av zīzǝnti, zīzanǝnti "they give birth"; Kurd zayîn "to give birth" Past zeẓ̌edə́l "to be born"</td><td>OCS zętĭ "son-in-law"</td><td></td><td>OIr -gainethar "who is born" < ĝn̥-ye-tro; W geni "to be born"</td><td>cnanim "I am born, bear"</td><td>dhëndër, dhândër "son-in-law, bridegroom" < ĝenH̥₁-tr-</td><td>AB kän- "to come to pass (of a wish), be realized"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sewh₁- or sewh₃- "to bear, beget, give birth" (See also suHnú-)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>sū́te "(she) begets"; sūtá- "born, brought forth"; sūtí "birth, production"</td><td>Av hunāhi "give birth, beget"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr suth "produce, offspring; milk"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>šunnai "fills"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂ewg-, h₂weg- "to grow, increase"</td><td>eke (< OE ēacian "to increase"); wax (of the moon) (< OE weaxan "to grow")</td><td>aukan, auknan "to increase (intr.)", wahsjan "to grow" < orig. caus. h₂wog-s-éy-onom</td><td>augeō (augēre) "to increase (tr.)" ⇒ ; auctor "grower - promoter, producer, author etc" ⇒ ; augmentum "growth, increase" ⇒ ; augur < augos "aggrandizement" ⇒ ; augustus "majestic, venerable" ⇒ ; auxilium "help, aid; remedy" ⇒</td><td>a(w)éksō "I increase (intr.)", aúksō, auksánō "I increase (tr.)"</td><td>úkṣati "(he) becomes stronger", vakṣáyati "(he) causes to grow"; ójas, ōjmán "strength, vitality, power"; ugrá- "immense, strong, hard";</td><td>Av uxšyeiti "(he) grows", vaxšaiti "(he) causes to grow"</td><td>OCS jugъ "south" (the direction to where the Sun rises)</td><td>OPrus augtwei "to grow", Lith augti " to grow"</td><td>OIr fēr, W gwêr "fat" < weg-</td><td>ačem "I grow, become big"</td><td></td><td>A oksiṣ "(he) grows"; A okṣu, В aukṣu "grown"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>weǵ- "fresh, strong; lively, awake"</td><td>wake (< OE wacian); watch (< OE wæċċan)</td><td>gawaknan "wake up, arouse"</td><td>vegeō (vegēre) "be alert, awake, smart"; vigor "id"; vigil "awake, watching"</td><td></td><td>vā́ja- "strength, energy, vigour, spirit"; vájra- "hard; mace; thunderbolt; diamond"; vājáyati "(s/he) impels"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷih₃wo- "alive", gʷih₃woteh₂ "life"</td><td>quick (< OE cwicu "alive")</td><td>qius "alive"</td><td>vīvus "alive"; vīta "life"</td><td>bíos, bíotos "life", zoo "animal"</td><td>jīvá-, jīvaka- "alive", jīvita·m, jīvā́tus, jīvathas "life"</td><td>Av gayō, acc. ǰyātum "life"; Gayōmart "living mortal"; -ǰyāiti- "life-"; Av ǰva-, OPers ǰīva- "alive", NPers ǰavān- "alive"; Kurd jiyan, jîn "life" Past žwənd "life"</td><td>OCS živŭ "alive", žitĭ, životŭ "life"; Živa "alive, living (Polabian deity)"</td><td>OPrus giws "alive", giwata "life", Lith gyvas "alive", gyvatė "snake"</td><td>Gaul biuo-, bio-, OIr biu, beo, W byw "alive"; OIr bethu (bethad), W bywyd "life" < Proto-Celtic bivo-tūts</td><td>keam "I live" < gʷi-yā-ye-mi</td><td></td><td>B śai- "to live" < gweiH₃-ō</td><td>ḫuišu̯ant- "living; alive"</td></tr><tr><td>ǵerh₂- "to grow old, mature" (See also ǵr̥h₂-nó-, gʰreh₁-)</td><td>churl (< OE ċeorl, ċiorl "free man")</td><td>Karl (< PGmc "free man") (> Slav korlǐ "king")</td><td></td><td>gérōn, gérontos "old; elder" (> geronto-); graûs "old woman"; geraiós "old"; géras "gift of honor"; gerarós "honorable, majestic, respectable"; Graîa Graia > Graikós > Graeco-, Greek</td><td>járati, jī́ryati "grows old; wears out; is consumed, digested"; jīrṇá- "old, worn out; digested"; járan(t)- "old, infirm; decayed"; jarā́, jarás, jariman "old age"</td><td></td><td>OCS zĭrěti "to ripen"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>grua "woman, wife" < PAlb grāwā</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mer- "to die"</td><td>murder (< OE morþor < mr̥-tro-m)</td><td>maúrþr "murder"</td><td>morior (morī) "to die" < mr̥-yōr, mortalis "mortal"</td><td>brotós (< mrotós), mortós "mortal"</td><td>marati, máratē, mriyátē "(he) dies", mṛtá- "dead", márta-, mortal</td><td>Av merə- "to die", miryeite "dies"; OPers martiya- "man (someone who dies)", NPers mordan- "to die"; Kurd mirin "to die" Past mrəl "to die"</td><td>OCS mĭrǫ, mrěti "to die"</td><td>Lith miŕštu (miŕti) "to die", merdėti "to die slowly"</td><td>OIr marb, W marw "dead" < mr̥-wós</td><td>meṙanim "I die", mard "human"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mert "died"</td></tr><tr><td>kl̥H- "bald, naked"</td><td></td><td></td><td>calvus "bald, hairless" > calva "skull, scalp"</td><td></td><td>kulvá- "bald"</td><td>NPers kal, kačal "bald" kalle "head"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kʷeh₂s- "to cough"</td><td>whoost "cough" (< OE hwōstan)</td><td>German Hust "cough"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Kurd kuxin "to cough", kuxik "cough"</td><td>OCS kašĭljati "to cough"</td><td>Lith kosėti "to cough"</td><td>W pas "cough"</td><td>koll "cough"</td><td>kollë "cough"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>perd- "fart"</td><td>fart (< OE feortan)</td><td></td><td></td><td>pérdomai</td><td>párdate "(s/he) farts"</td><td></td><td>Russian perdétь "to fart"</td><td>Lith persti "to fart"</td><td>W rhech "fart"</td><td>bert "fart"</td><td>pordhë "fart"</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Mental functions and states

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ḱlew(s)- "to hear"</td><td>listen (< OE hlystan), loud (< OE hlūd)</td><td>hliuma "hearing, ears (in pl.)"</td><td>clueō (cluēre) "to be named"; inclitus/inclutus "famous" (heard of)</td><td>ékluon "I heard"</td><td>śṛṇóti "(he) hears" < ḱl̥-ne-w-; śrúti "that which is heard"</td><td>Av surunaoiti "(he) hears" < k̂lu-n-</td><td>OCS slyšati "to hear"; slušati "to listen"</td><td>OPrus klausytun "to hear", Lith klausyti "to listen"</td><td>OIr ro-clui-nethar "hears"; W clywed "to hear"; Gaul cluiou "I hear"</td><td>lsem "I hear"</td><td>Old Tosk kluaj (standard quaj) "to call, to name" < ḱlu(H)-eh₁-</td><td>A klyoṣ-, B klyauṣ- "to hear"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ew- or h₃ew- "to see, perceive, be aware of"</td><td>OE ēawis "obvious"</td><td></td><td>audiō "I hear, listen to; pay attention to" ⇒</td><td>aḯō "I perceive, hear, see, obey"; aisthánomai "I perceive, feel, apprehend, notice" ⇒</td><td>āvís "evidently, manifestly, before the eyes, openly"</td><td></td><td>OCS aviti "to show, appear"</td><td>Lith ovytis "to appear"; ovyje "in reality"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>weyd- "to see, find; to know"</td><td>wit (OE wit "intelligence", witan "to know" < PIE perfect tense)</td><td>witan "to know"</td><td>videō (vidēre) "to see"</td><td>é(w)ide "he saw"; perf. oĩda "I know (lit. I have seen)"</td><td>vindáti "(he) finds", ávidat "found"; vetti, vēdate, vidáti "(he) knows"; perf. véda "I know"</td><td>Av vī̆δaiti, vī̆nasti "(he) finds"</td><td>OCS viždǫ (viděti) "to see"</td><td>OPrus widatun "to see"; Lith veidas "face", išvysti "to see"</td><td>W gweld "to see", gwybod "to know"</td><td>gtanem "I find"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>woyd- "to know"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Av perf. vaēδa "I know", vīdarǝ "they know"</td><td>OCS věmĭ (věděti) "to know"</td><td>OPrus waistun "to know", Lith vaistas "medicine", vaidila "pagan priest"</td><td>OIr find, W gwn "(I) know"</td><td>gitem "I know"</td><td></td><td>B ūwe "learned" < PToch wäwen- < wid-wo-</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ǵénH₃-, ǵnéH₃-sḱ-, ǵn̥-né-h₃- "to recognize, know"</td><td>can (< OE cann "I know, he knows"), know (< OE cnāwan < ǵnēH₃-yo-nom), Scot ken "to know" (< OE cennan "to cause to know" < PGerm kann-jan)</td><td>kunnan "to know" < ǵn̥-n-h₃-onom, kann "I know"</td><td>(g)nōscō ((g)nōscere) "to learn about", nōvī "I know" (lit. "I have learnt")</td><td>gignṓskō (aorist égnōn) "I learn about, perceive"</td><td>jānā́mi "I know" < janā́mi < ǵn̥-nh₃-mi</td><td>Av zanā-ṯ, zanąn < ǵn̥-ne-h₃-ti; OPers a-dānā (impf.) "he knew" < ǵn̥-ne-h₃-mi, xšnāsātiy (subj.) "he should know"; Kurd zanîn "to know"</td><td>OCS znajǫ (znati) "to know" < ǵneh₃-yoh₂</td><td>OPrus zinatun "to recognize, know", Lith žinoti "to know"</td><td>OIr itar-gninim, asa-gninaim "I am wise"; W adnabod "(I) know"</td><td>čanačʿem, aorist caneay "I recognize"</td><td>njoh "I know" < ǵnēh₃-sḱoh₂</td><td>A knā-, e.g. knānmaṃ "knowing" < ǵneH₃-, kñas-äṣt "you have become acquainted" < ǵnēH₃-s-</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>n̥- + ǵneh₃-tos "not" + "to know"</td><td>uncouth (< OE uncūþ "unknown, strange")</td><td>unkunþs "unknown"</td><td>ignōtus, ignōrāntem "unknown, ignorant"</td><td>agnṓs (agnõtos) "unknown" < n̥- + ǵnéH₃-ts</td><td>ajñāta- "unknown"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OPrus nezinatun "not to know", Lith nežinoti " not to know"</td><td>OIr ingnad "foreign"</td><td>an-can-awtʿ "ignorant, unknown"</td><td></td><td>A ā-knats, B a-knātsa "ignorant"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>lewbʰ- "to love; desire, covet, want; admire, praise"</td><td>love (< OE lufu); arch. lief "dear, beloved" (< OE lēof); lofe "praise, exalt; offer" (< OE lofian, lof)</td><td>lubō "love"</td><td>libet "it is pleasing, agreeable"</td><td></td><td>lúbhyati "(s/he) desires greatly; longs for, covets; is perplexed"; lobháyati "(s/he) causes to desire, attract, allure; confound, bewilder"; lobhá "perplexity, confusion; impatience, eager desire, longing; covetousness"; lobhin "greedy, desirous of, longing after; covetous"</td><td></td><td>OCS ljubiti "to love"; ljubŭ "sweet, pleasant"; ljuby "love"; Russ ljubímyj "favorite"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>lyp "beg"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>men- "to think"</td><td>mind (< OE (ġe)mynd "memory" < mn̥t-ís); OE munan "to think"; minion</td><td>munan "to think"; muns (pl. muneis) "thought" < mn̥-is; gamunds (gamundáis) "remembrance" < ko(m)-mn̥t-ís</td><td>meminī "I remember" ⇒ ; reminīscor "I recollect, remember" ⇒ mēns (mentis) "mind" < mn̥t-is; memor "mindful, remembering" ⇒ commentus "devised, contrived; invented"; moneō "I remind, warn"; mōnstrum "a divine omen; portent" ⇒ ; Minerva</td><td>mémona "I think of"; maínomai "I go mad"; mimnḗskō "I remind, recall"; mnáomai "I am mindful, remember; woo, court"; autómatos "self-willed, unbidden; self-moving, automatic"; ménos "mind; desire; anger"; Méntōr "mentor"; manthánō "I learn; know, understand; notices"; máthēma "something that is learned, lesson; learning, knowledge" ⇒ ; Promētheús]</td><td>mányate "(he) thinks"; mántra- "thought, the instrument of thought"; mánas "mind"; máti "thought intention; opinion, notion; perception, judgement"; mantṛ́ "thinker, adviser"; medhā́ "wisdom, intelligence" (See mazdā); mantrín "minister, councilor, counselor" > mandarin</td><td>Av mainyeite "(he) thinks"; mazdā "wisdom, intelligence"; OPers mainyāhay "I think", NPers Došman- "Someone who has a bad mind"; Kurd mejî "brain, mind"</td><td>OCS mĭněti "to mean"; pamętĭ "memory"; myslĭ "thought"</td><td>OPrus mintun "to guess", minisna "memory", mints "riddle", mentitun "to lie", Lith mintis " thought", minti "to guess", minėti "to mention", manyti "to have an opinion"</td><td>OIr do-moiniur "I believe, I mean"</td><td></td><td>mendoj "I think"</td><td>A mnu "thought"; B mañu "demand (n.)"</td><td>memmāi "says"</td></tr><tr><td>(s)mer- "to remember, care for, be concerned, fall into thinking"</td><td>mammer "to hesitate; to mumble, stammer from hesitation" (< OE māmrian, māmorian "to think through, deliberate, plan out"); mimmer "to dote, dream" (< OE mymerian "to keep in mind"); mourn (< OE murnan); OE mimor "mindful"</td><td>maurnan "be anxious"</td><td>memor "mindful, remembering" ⇒ ; mora "delay, any duration of time" ⇒</td><td>mérmeros "baneful, mischievous; captious, fastidious"; mérimna "care, thought; anxious mind"; mártus, márturos "witness" ⇒</td><td>smárati "(s/he) remembers, recollects"</td><td></td><td>Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian mar "care"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>teng- "to think"</td><td>think (< OE þenċan, þenċean); thank (< OE þanc "thought, thanks")</td><td>þagkjan "think"</td><td>tongeō "I know"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>A tuṅk, B taṅkw "love"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mers- "to bother, annoy, neglect, disturb, forget, ignore"</td><td>mar (< OE mierran)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>mṛ́ṣyate "(s/he) forgets, neglects, disregards"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith miršti "to forget, lose, become oblivious"</td><td></td><td></td><td>mërzi "boredom" mërzit "bother, annoy"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sekʷ- "to see, to say"</td><td>see (< OE sēon); say (< OE sec̣gan < PGerm sag(w)jan < sokʷéyonom)</td><td>saíƕan "to see"; OHG sagen "say" < sokʷē-</td><td>īnseque "declare!"</td><td>énnepe "tell!"</td><td>śacate "(he) says"</td><td></td><td>OCS sočiti "to announce"</td><td>Lith sakyti "to say", sekti "to tell a story, to follow"</td><td>OIr insce "I talk"; OIr rosc "eye" < pro-skʷo-; OW hepp "(he) said"</td><td></td><td>sheh "(he) sees"</td><td>A ṣotre, B ṣotri "sign"</td><td>sakuwāi- "to see"</td></tr><tr><td>derḱ- "to see"</td><td>ME torhte "bright, shining, radiant"</td><td></td><td></td><td>dérkomai "to see, see clearly; watch"; dérgma "look, glance; sight"</td><td>dṛś- "see"; darśayati "to cause to see, to show"; dṛṣṭá- "seen, visible, apparent, noticed"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oir : dearc ~tha).Look, behold; regard, consider; W edrych "look"</td><td></td><td>ndrri, ndrritje "bright, enlightened"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(s)péḱ- "to watch, be looking at, keep looking at"</td><td>spy (< Fk spehōn "to spy")</td><td></td><td>-spex "watcher" > avispex, auspex "bird-watcher" ⇒ ; speciō "I observe, watch, look at" ⇒ ; speciēs "seeing, view, look; sight; appearance; point of view; kind, sort, type" ⇒ ; specimen "mark, token; example, pattern, model"; spectus "look, appearance, aspect"; spectrum "appearance, image; apparition, spectre" ⇒ ; speculum "looking-glass, mirror" ⇒</td><td>skopéō "I look, behold; inspect" ⇒ ; skopós "watcher; proterctor, guardian" ⇒ ; sképtomai "I look at; examine; consider, think"; sképsis "viewing; observation; doubt" ⇒</td><td>spáś "spy, watcher; messenger"; páśyati "(s/he) sees, looks, beholds"; spaṣṭá- "clear, visible; obvious, evident; intelligible"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith spoksoti "to stare"</td><td></td><td></td><td>shpik "invent" shpikje "invention, creation"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kʷeḱ- "to see; to show; to seem"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>tékmar "goal, end; token"</td><td>kā́śate "(it) is visible, appears; shines"; √caks-, caṣṭe "to see, look; appear; inform"; cákṣu "eye"; cákṣman "seer"</td><td>Av cašman "eye"</td><td>OCS kazati "to show; say, testify"</td><td>Lith kušlas "having poor eyesight"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wekʷ- "to say"</td><td>OE wōma "noise" < wōkʷ-mō(n)</td><td>OHG giwahanen "mention" < PGerm gawahnjan (denom. built on wokʷ-no-)</td><td>vocō (vocāre) "to call", vōx (vōcis) "voice"</td><td>eĩpon (aor.) "spoke" < e-we-ikʷ-om < e-we-ukʷ-om, (w)épos "word"</td><td>vákti, vívakti "(he) says", vāk "voice", vácas- "word"</td><td>Av vač- "speak, say", vāxš "voice", vačah "word", NPers vāk- "voice"; Kurd vaj "voice", bivaj- "to say"</td><td></td><td>OPrus enwackēmai "we call"</td><td>OIr foccul "word", W gwaethl "argument, verbal fight" < wokʷ-tlo-m</td><td>gočem "I call"</td><td></td><td>A wak, B wek "voice"</td><td>ḫuek-, ḫuk- to swear to"</td></tr><tr><td>bʰeh₂- "to speak, say"</td><td>ban (< PGmc bannaną "to proclaim, order, summon")</td><td></td><td>fāma "fame"; fās "divine law; will of god, destiny"; for (fārī) "I speak, talk, say"; fātus "word, saying; oracle, prophecy; fate"; fateor (fatērī, fassus sum) "I confess, admit, acknowledge"; fābula "discourse, narrative; tale, fable"; Sp hablar, Pt falar "to speak"</td><td>phōnḗ "voice"; phḗmē "prophetic voice; rumor; reputation"; phēmí "I speak, say"; prophḗtēs "one who speaks for a god: proclaimer, prophet"; phásis "utterance, statement, expression"</td><td>bhā́ṣā "speech, language"; bhā́ṣati "(s/he) speaks"</td><td></td><td>bajka "fable"; OCS balii (bali) "physician, (healer, enchanter)"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>preḱ-, pr̥-sḱ- < pr̥ḱ-sḱ- "to ask"</td><td>pray "to ask, request" Scot frain "to ask" (< OE freġnan)</td><td>fraíhnan "to ask"; OHG forscōn "to ask, to research"</td><td>precor (precārī) "to pray", poscō (poscere) "to demand, ask"</td><td></td><td>pṛccháti "(he) asks"</td><td>Av pǝrǝsaiti "(he) asks, desires" < pr̥-sḱ-; OPers aor.? aparsam "(he) asked"; Kurd pirs "question" Past pox̌tə́l "to ask"</td><td>OCS prositi "to ask, to demand"</td><td>OPrus prasitun "to ask", Lith prašyti "to ask"</td><td>OIr imm-chom-arc "mutual questions, greetings"; NIr arco, W archaf "I ask"</td><td>harcʿanem "I ask"</td><td>pyet "ask" porosit "recommend, order" (an article or a meal)</td><td>A prak-, B prek- "to ask"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kelh₁-, (s)kel-dʰ- "to call, cry, summon"</td><td>haul (< OE halian); scold (< ON skald)</td><td></td><td>calō "I call, announce solemnly; call out"; concilium "a council, meeting" ⇒ ; classis "the armed forces; fleet; group or class" > class; kalendae "the Calends" > calendar; clāmō "I cry out, clamor, shout, yell" ⇒ ; clārus "clear, bright; renouwned, famous; loud, distinct" ⇒</td><td>kaléō "I call, hail; summon, invite"</td><td>klándati, krándati "(s/he) laments weeps; cries; sounds"; uṣaḥkala-, uṣakala- "rooster, lit, dawn-call"</td><td>Kurd kalîn "to moan, to whine, to mourn", dikale "he/she mourns"</td><td>OCS klakolŭ "bell"; Russ skulítʹ "to whine, whisper"</td><td>Lith kalbėti "to speak"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Gheg kaj "weep, cry"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰeyh₂- "to fear, be afraid"</td><td>bive, bever "to shake, tremble" (< OE bifian)</td><td></td><td>foedus "foul, filthy, unseemly; vile"</td><td></td><td>bháyate "(s/he) is afraid"; bhī, bhīti, bhayá- "fear"</td><td></td><td>OCS bojati "to fear, be afraid"</td><td>Lith baimė "fear", bijoti "to fear"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁néh₃mn̥ or h₁nómn̥ "name"</td><td>name (< OE nama)</td><td>namō (acc. pl. namna) "name"</td><td>nōmen "name"</td><td>ónoma "name"</td><td>nā́ma(n)(instrumental sg. nā́mnā) "name"</td><td>Av nāma "name"; NPers nām- "name"; Kurd nav "name" Past num "name"</td><td>OCS imę "name" < Proto-Slavic inmen < n̥men</td><td>OPrus emnes, emmens "name" < enmen-</td><td>OIr ainmm n-, OW anu "name"; Gaul anuan < anman "name"</td><td>anun "name"</td><td>Gheg emën, Tosk emër "name" < enmen-</td><td>A ñem, B ñom "name"</td><td>lāman- "name"</td></tr></tbody></table>

General conditions and states

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>(s)teyg- "to be sharp; to sting"</td><td>stick (< OE sticca); stitch (< OE stiċe); thistle (< OE þistel)</td><td>stiks "point"</td><td>īnstīgō "I stimulate, incite, rouse" > instigate; stilus (later spelled stylus) "pointed instrument, spike" ⇒</td><td>stizō "I tattoo; mark"; stíxis "marking; spot, mark"; stígma "mark, tattoo; spot, stain"</td><td>téjate "become sharp; energize"; téjas "sharp ede of a knife; light, brilliance, glow; splendor; fiery power"; tīkṣṇá "sharp; hot, fiery, pungent; acute, keen"; tigmá "sharp, pointed; pungent, scorching, acrid"</td><td>Per tez "sharp"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>teh₂- "to melt, thaw; flow"</td><td>thaw (< OE þawian); thone "damp, moist, wet" (< OE þan)</td><td></td><td>tābēs "decay, foulness; fluid from a wound"; tābeō "I melt; rot"; tābum "gore; viscous fluid"</td><td>tîphos "pond, swamp"; tḗkō "melt"</td><td>tāmara "water"; toyam "water"; toś-, tośate "drip, distill, trickle"; tuṣāra "rain, mist, tickle, drizzle, wet"</td><td></td><td>OCS tajati "melt"</td><td></td><td>W toddi to melt</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Natural features

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h₂ster- "star" (See also: h₂eHs-)</td><td>star (< OE steorra)</td><td>staírnō "star"</td><td>stēlla "star"</td><td>astḗr "star"</td><td>root stṛ (stá "star", stáras "stars"), contracted root tṛ (tārā "star")</td><td>Av acc. stā̆rǝm (ablauting) "star"; Kurd stêr "star"</td><td></td><td></td><td>MIr ser, W seren, Breton sterenn "star"; Celtic Sirona (< Tsirona) "astral", "stellar"</td><td>astł "star"; Astłik "deity of love, fertility and skylight"</td><td></td><td>pl. A śreñ, B ściriñ "stars"</td><td>ḫasterza "star"</td></tr><tr><td>dyḗws "day, daily sky → the sky god"; déywos "heavenly → god"</td><td>Tues-day (< OE Tīwes-dæġ lit. "day of Tīw")</td><td>tiws "god", ON Týr "Tīw" (the war god)</td><td>Iuppiter (Iovis), Old Latin Diū-piter (Diovis) "Jupiter"; diēs "day", deus, dīvus "god"</td><td>Zdeús (Di(w)ós) "Zeus"</td><td>d(i)yāús (divás, dyōs) "heaven", dēvás "god", devī́ "goddess"</td><td>Av daēva- "demon"; Kurd dêw "giant"</td><td>(OCS dĭnĭ (dĭne) "day" < din-is), Ukr. dyvo and Russ. divo "miracle"</td><td>OPrus deina "day", deiws "god", Lith diena "day", dievas "god"</td><td>OIr dīe, W dydd "day"; OIr dia (dē), OW duiu- "God"</td><td>tiw (tuənǰean) "day"</td><td>din "dawn" <PAlb deina "day" zot "god" <PIE dyew + átta</td><td></td><td>Šiuš "Hittite sky- or sun-god"</td></tr><tr><td>seh₂wol-, sóh₂wl̥, sh₂un- "sun"</td><td>sun (< OE sunne)</td><td>sauil, sunnō "sun"</td><td>sōl "sun"</td><td>Homeric hēélios "sun" < sāwélios; Helios "deity of the sun"</td><td>súvar (súra-) "sun, light, heavens", sūra-, sūrya "sun"</td><td>Av hvarǝ (hūrō) "sun, light, heavens", Hvare-khshaeta "deity of the radiant sun"</td><td>OCS slĭnŭce "sun" < sulnika-, Russ. po-solon' "sunwise"</td><td>OPrus sauli "sun", sawaiti "week", Lith saulė "sun"</td><td>OIr sūil "eye"; W haul "sun"</td><td></td><td>ylli "star" < sūlo- or sūli-</td><td>A swañceṃ; B swañco, swañciye "sunbeam" (< Common Tocharian su̯āntœ)</td><td>DUTU-li-ya "Sun goddess"</td></tr><tr><td>meh₁ns- "moon, month"</td><td>moon (< OE mōna), month (< OE mōnaþ)</td><td>mēna "moon", mēnoþs "month"</td><td>mēnsis "month"</td><td>Att mḗn, Ion meis, Dor mḗs "month", mḗnē "moon"</td><td>mā́s "moon"; mā́sa "month"</td><td>Av mā̊ (mā̊ŋhō) "moon"; NPers māh "moon, month"; Kurd meh "month", mang "moon"</td><td>OCS měsęcĭ "moon, month" < mēs-n̥-ko-</td><td>OPrus miniks "moon", mins "month", Lith mėnulis "moon", mėnesis "month"</td><td>OIr mī (mīs) "month" < mēns;; W mis "month"</td><td>amis "month"</td><td>muai "month"</td><td>A mañ B meñe "month"; A mañ ñkät B meṃ "moon"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰeǵʰom- "earth" (See also dʰǵʰmṓ)</td><td></td><td></td><td>humus "earth" ⇒</td><td>kʰtʰṓn (kʰtʰonós) "earth", kʰamaí "on the earth"</td><td>kṣā́s (acc. kṣā́m, gen. jmá-) "earth"</td><td>Av zā̊ (acc. ząm, gen. zǝmō) "earth"; Kurd zevî "farmland"; NPers zamin "ground, soil", zamindar "land owner"</td><td>OCS zemĭ, zemlja "earth"; Russ Chernozem "black soil"</td><td>OPrus zemê "earth", semmai "on the earth" (adverb); Lith žemė " earth"</td><td>OIr dū "place"; Welsh dyn "man"</td><td></td><td>dhe "earth"</td><td>A tkaṃ (tkanis), B keṃ "earth"</td><td>tēkan (tagnās) "earth"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂éḱmō "stone"</td><td>hammer (< OE hamer)</td><td></td><td></td><td>ákmōn "anvil"</td><td>áśman "stone"; aśmará "stony"</td><td>Asman "sky"</td><td>OCS kamy, gen. kamene "stone"</td><td>Lith akmuõ, gen. akmeñs "stone"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>lep- "stone"</td><td></td><td></td><td>lapis "stone"</td><td>lépas "crag, bare rock"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wódr̥ (udéns) pl. wédōr (udnés) "water"</td><td>water (< OE wæter)</td><td>watō (watins) "water"</td><td>Umbrian utur "water", Latin unda "wave"</td><td>húdōr (húdatos) "water"; Hydra (litt.) "water-animal"</td><td>udaká- (loc. udán(i), pl. udá), udra "water"; samudra "ocean" (litt. "gathering of waters")</td><td>Av aoδa- "spring", vaiδi- "stream"</td><td>OCS voda "water", Russ. vedro "bucket"; Russ vódka "vodka"</td><td>OPrus undan "water", Lith vanduo gen. vandens "water"</td><td>OIr u(i)sce "water" < udeskyo-; Eng. Whisky < uisce beatha "water of life"</td><td>get "river"</td><td>ujë "water"</td><td>A wär, B war "water"</td><td>wātar (wetenas) "water"</td></tr><tr><td>dóru, drew- "wood, tree"</td><td>tree (< OE trēo)</td><td>triu "tree, wood"</td><td></td><td>dóru, drûs "tree, wood"</td><td>dā́ru, drṓs, drú- "tree, wood"</td><td>Av dāru- "tree, wood"; Kurd dar "tree, wood"</td><td>OCS drěvo "tree"</td><td>OPrus drawê "hole in a tree, hollow tree", Lith drevė "hole in a tree", derva "tar"</td><td>OIr daur "oak", W derwen "oak"</td><td>tram "firm"</td><td>dru "tree, wood"</td><td>AB or "wood"</td><td>taru "tree"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂weh₁n̥to- "wind", h₂weh₁- "to blow"</td><td>wind (< OE wind); OE wāwan "to blow"</td><td>winds "wind"; waian "to blow"</td><td>ventus "wind"</td><td>áenta (acc.) "wind", áēsi "(he) blows"</td><td>vā́ta- (vānt-) "wind", vāti "(he) blows", Vāyu "lord of winds"; nir·vāṇa- "blow-out, extinction"</td><td>Av vātō "wind", vāiti "(he) blows", Vayu-Vata "a pair of deities: Vayu/Wind and Vata/Air"; Kurd ba, wa, va "wind", hewa "air, weather"</td><td>OCS vějǫ (vějetŭ) "to blow", větrŭ "wind"</td><td>OPrus witra "wind"; Lith vėjas "wind", vėtra "heavy wind", Vėjopatis "god of winds"</td><td>W gwynt "wind"</td><td></td><td>vetëtin"it thunders"</td><td>A want, B yente "wind"</td><td>ḫūwanz "wind"</td></tr><tr><td>sneygʷʰ- "to snow"</td><td>snow (< OE snāw < snóygʷʰos, snīwan "to snow" < snéygʷʰonom)</td><td>snáiws "snow"</td><td>nix (nivis) "snow", ninguō (ninguere) "to snow"</td><td>nípʰa (acc.) "snow", neípʰei "it snows"</td><td>sneha- "snow"</td><td>Av snaēža- "to snow"; Shughni žǝnij "snow" < snaiga-</td><td>OCS sněgŭ "snow"</td><td>OPrus snaigs "snow", Lith sniegas "snow", snigti "to snow"</td><td>OIr snecht(a)e, W nyf "snow" (< snigʷo-); OIr snigid "it rains"</td><td></td><td></td><td>B śin̄catstse "snowy" (< śin̄ce ("snow") < snígʷi)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁n̥gʷnís "fire" < h₁engʷ- "to burn"; h₁óngʷl̥ "charcoal"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ignis "fire"</td><td></td><td>agní "fire"; áṅgāra "charcoal"</td><td></td><td>OCS ognĭ "fire"; ǫglĭ "coal"</td><td>Lith ugnis "fire", anglis "coal" Lv uguns "fire"</td><td></td><td></td><td>e enjte "Thursday" <PAlb agni "fire"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>péh₂wr̥, ph₂unés "bonfire"</td><td>fire (< OE fȳr < fuïr)</td><td>fōn (funins) "fire"; OHG fuïr (two syllables) < puwéri</td><td>Umbrian pir "fire" < pūr, acc. purom-e "into the fire" < pur-</td><td>pũr (purós) "fire"</td><td>pāru (pēru) "sun, fire"</td><td>NPers fer "oven, furnace"</td><td>Czech pýř "glowing ash", Pol perzyna "embers", Slovak pyr, UpSb pyr "ashes" Ukr para "steam (n.)"</td><td>OPrus pannu "fire"</td><td></td><td>hur "fire"</td><td></td><td>A por, B puwar, puwār, pwār "fire"</td><td>paḫḫur "fire"</td></tr><tr><td>dʰuh₂mós "smoke" < dʰewh₂- "to smoke"</td><td>dew (< OE dēaw)</td><td></td><td>fūmus "smoke"</td><td>thūmós "soul, life, breath; desire, temper"</td><td>dhūmá- "smoke; mist, fog"</td><td>Kurd du, dukêl</td><td>OCS dymŭ "smoke"</td><td>Lith dūmai "smoke"</td><td></td><td></td><td>tym "smoke" <PAlb ātuma</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂eHs- "to become dry; burn, glow; hearth; ashes" (See also: h₂ster-)</td><td>ash (< OE æsce);</td><td>azgō "ash; cinder"</td><td>āreō "I am dry; dried up, withered"; āridus "dry, parched, withered, arid" > arid; āra "altar; sanctuary, refuge"; assus "roasted, baked; dried"; Osc aasa "altar"</td><td>ázō "I dry"; ásbolos "soot"</td><td>ā́sa- "ashes, dust"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>A/B ās- "to dry out; to dry up"</td><td>ḫašš- "ash; dust"; ḫašša- "hearth"; Lyc χaha-(di-) "altar"</td></tr><tr><td>ken- "to rub, scrape off; ashes, dust"</td><td></td><td></td><td>cinis, cineris "ashes" ⇒</td><td>κόνις "ash, dust"</td><td>kaṇa- "particle; small grain of dust, rice, corn; atom"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷʰerm- "warm"</td><td>?warm (< OE wearm); OE ġierwan "to prepare, cook" < PGerm garwjan</td><td>?warmjan "to warm"</td><td>formus "warm"</td><td>tʰermós "warm"</td><td>gʰarmá- "heat"</td><td>Av garǝma- "hot, heat"; OPers Garma-pada-, name of the fourth month, corresponding to June/July, orig. (?) "entrance of the heat"; Kurd germ "hot, warm"</td><td>Russ. žar "heat", goret' "to burn" < gʷʰer</td><td>OPrus garmê "heat, glowing"</td><td>OIr gorn "fire" < gʷʰor-nos, W gwres heat, warmth</td><td>ǰerm "warm"</td><td>Gheg zjarm "fire, heat" ngroh " I warm" ziej "I boil, cook" <PAlb džernja</td><td>A śärme "heat (of summer)"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰegʷʰ- "to burn; warm, hot"</td><td></td><td></td><td>foveō "I warm, keep warm; nurture, foster"; fōmentum "a warm application; lotion"; ⇒ fōmes "kindling, tinder" febris "fever"; ⇒ februum, februarius "expiatory offerings, means of purification"; ⇒</td><td>téphrā "ashes"</td><td>dáhati "it burns"; dagdhá- "burned, burnt"</td><td></td><td>OCS žešti (žeg-) "to burn"; žigŭ "burn mark, brand"</td><td>Lith dė̃gis "burn scar", degti "to burn"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ndez "to light" djeg "burn"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁ews- "to burn";</td><td>ember (< OE ǣmyrġe)</td><td></td><td>ūrō "I burn, consume, inflame"; ustus "burnt, inflamed"; bustum < amb-bustum "a burial mound, tomb"; combūrō "I burn up, cremate, scald" > combust; ūrna "urn, water jar" (lit. a vessel of burnt clay)</td><td>heúō "I singe"</td><td>óṣati "(s/he) burns, burns down; punishes"; uṣṭá "burnt"; uṣṇá "warm, hot"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gel- "to be cold, to freeze"</td><td>cold (< OE ceald)</td><td>kalds "cold (of the weather)"</td><td>gelus "ice", gelidus "icy"</td><td></td><td>śarada "autumn"</td><td></td><td>MBulg goloti "ice"</td><td>Lith gelmenis, gelumà "great cold"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>temH- "(to be) dark" témHos "darkness"</td><td></td><td>OHG demar "twilight"</td><td>tenebrae "darkness" (< temebrai < temasro)</td><td></td><td>támas "darkness, gloom", támisrā "dark night"</td><td>Av taΘra "darkness", təmah- "darkness"</td><td>OCS tĭmĭnŭ "darkness", tĭma', Rus temnotá "darkness"</td><td>Lith tamsa "dark, darkness", tiḿsras "a darker shade of red"; Latv tumšs, timšs "dark", tùmsa "darkness"</td><td>OIr temel "darkness" (< PCel temeslos); OW timuil "dark, darkness"</td><td></td><td></td><td>B tamãsse "dark"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>nébʰos "cloud; mist"</td><td>OE nifol "dark [misty]"</td><td>ON Niflheimr "home of mists"</td><td>nebula "fog, cloud"</td><td>népʰos "cloud"; nepʰélē "mass of clouds; name of a nymph"</td><td>nábʰas "mist; sky, cloud"; nábʰāsa "celestial, heavenly; appearing in the sky"</td><td>nabah- "heavens" (litt. "nimbuses, clouds")</td><td>OCS nebo "heaven, sky"; Pol niebo "sky"; Cz nebesa "skies"; Rus Небеса "heaven"</td><td>Lith debesis "cloud", Ltv debesis skies, heavens</td><td>OIr nem "sky"; OBret nem, MBret neff "sky"</td><td></td><td>avull "steam" <PAlb abula</td><td></td><td>nēpiš- "sky, heaven"; CLuw tappaš- "heaven"; HierLuw tipas- "heaven"</td></tr><tr><td>lew- "dirt, mud"</td><td></td><td></td><td>lutum "dirt, clay, mud"; polluō "I soil, defile, foul" ⇒</td><td>lûma "dirt, filth, smut; disgrace"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith liutýnas "loam pit"</td><td>OIr loth "mud"</td><td></td><td>lym "mud"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sámh₂dʰos "sand"</td><td>sand (< OE sand)</td><td></td><td>sabulō, sabulum "sand, gravel"</td><td>psámathos "sand, grains of sand"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>srew-, srew-mo, sru-to "to flow, stream" (in river names)</td><td>stream (< OE strēam)</td><td>ON straumr "a stream"</td><td></td><td>rheûma "flow"</td><td>srutá- "flow", srava "a flow of, a waterfall" (< srówos)</td><td>YAv θraotah- "stream" (< OIA srótas-); OPer rautaʰ- "river"</td><td>OCS struja "stream", o-strovŭ "island"; Rus strumenı "brook"; Pol strumień "brook, river"</td><td>Lith srovė "current", sraumuõ "brook, stream", sraujà "current", sraũtas "flow, torrent"; Latv strāva "current", strauja "stream"</td><td>OIr sruaimm, Ir sruth "stream, river"; MW ffrwd "brook, stream"; OBret frut "stream"</td><td>OArm aṙu "brook; canal" (< srutis-)</td><td>rrymë "stream, current; flow (of water)"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰenh₂- "to set in motion, to flow"; déh₂nu "river goddess"</td><td></td><td></td><td>fōns < PItal ðonts "spring, fountain; fresh water; source"</td><td></td><td>dhánvati "it runs, flows, causes to run or flow"; dhána- "competition, contest; prize"; dā́nu "fluid, drop, dew"</td><td>Dnieper < OOss dānu apara "the far river"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Danube < PCelt Dānowyos</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰol- "valley, vault; curve, hollow"</td><td>dale (< OE dæl)</td><td>acc. dal "pit, valley"</td><td></td><td>thólos "vault"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS dolŭ "valley; depression"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>móri "lake?, sea?"</td><td>OE mere "lake"</td><td>marei "sea"</td><td>mare "sea"</td><td></td><td>maryā́dā "shore; bank of a water body"</td><td></td><td>OCS morje "sea"</td><td>Lith mãrės "sea"</td><td>OIr muir "sea"; W môr "sea"; Gaul Morini "those from the sea (name of a tribe)"</td><td>OAr mor < mawr "mud, marsh, swamp"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Directions

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>per- "through, across, beyond"</td><td>far (< OE feorr)</td><td>faírra "far"; faír- "around; (intensifier)"</td><td>per "through"</td><td>perí, pér "around"</td><td>pári "forward"</td><td>Av pairi; OPers pariy "forward"; Kurd ber "in front of, before"</td><td>OCS prě- "forward"</td><td>OPrus pro-, pra- "trough, across", Latvian pāri "across", Lith per "across", pra- "to start and finish doing something", pro- "through"</td><td>OIr ir-, W er "forward"</td><td>heṙu "far"</td><td>për, pej, pe "forward"</td><td></td><td>parā, Lycian pri "forth"</td></tr><tr><td>upér(i) "over, above"</td><td>over (< OE ofer)</td><td>ufar "over, above, beyond"</td><td>super "over" (influenced by sub "under")</td><td>hypér (< supér) "over"</td><td>upári "over, above, beyond"</td><td>Av 'upairi, OPers "over, above, beyond"</td><td>OCS po "upon, at"</td><td>OPrus uppin "cloud"</td><td>OIr for, W gor, gwar "over, on"</td><td>ver "up"</td><td>epër "over, above"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂ents "forehead", h₂entí, h₂entá "in front of"</td><td>and (< OE and)</td><td>and "along, throughout, towards, in, on, among"; OHG enti "previously" < PGerm andiaz</td><td>ante "in front of"</td><td>antí "instead of"</td><td>anti "opposite to it"</td><td>Kurd enî "front, forehead"</td><td></td><td>Lith añt "on" antai "there"</td><td>OIr étan "forehead" < antono-</td><td>ənd "instead of"</td><td>ende "yet, still" edhe "and" (< ênde)</td><td>A ānt, B ānte "surface, forehead"</td><td>ḫānz, ḫanti "in front"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁én "in"</td><td>in (< OE in)</td><td>in "in, into, towards"</td><td>in "in"</td><td>en "in"</td><td>án-īka- "face" < ?h₁eni-Hkʷ</td><td>Av ainika "face" < ?h₁eni-Hkʷ</td><td>OCS on-, vŭn-, vŭ "in"</td><td>OPrus en "in", Lith į "in"</td><td>OIr in- "in"; W yn "in"</td><td>i "in"</td><td>në "in"</td><td>AB y-, yn-, B in- "in"</td><td>an-dan "inside"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂epó "away"</td><td>of, off (< OE of)</td><td>af "from, of, by" (ab-u "from ...?")</td><td>ab "away"</td><td>apó "from"</td><td>ápa "away"</td><td>Av apa, OPers apa "away"</td><td>OCS ot, "from, apart of"</td><td>Lith apačià "bottom" < apotyā</td><td></td><td></td><td>prapë "back" < per-apë pa "without"</td><td></td><td>āpa "behind, back" (or ? < epi)</td></tr><tr><td>deḱs- "the right (side)"</td><td></td><td>Gothic taihswa "right side"</td><td>dexter</td><td>dexiós; Myc de-ki-si-wo</td><td>dákṣina "right, south"</td><td>Av dašina "right, south"; MPer dašn "right hand, right side"</td><td>OCS desnŭ "right (side)"</td><td>Lith dẽšinas</td><td>Gaul Dexsiva (Dexsiua), W de right, south</td><td></td><td>djathtë "right" <PAlb detsa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>marǵ-, merǵ- "edge; boundary, border"</td><td>mark (< OE mearc); march (< OF markōn)</td><td>marka "border, bound, region"</td><td></td><td>margō (marginis) "border, edge" > margin</td><td></td><td>maryā "limit, mark, boundary"; mārga- "way, road, path"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>W bro region, vale</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰudʰmḗn "bottom"</td><td>butt (< OE bytt); bottom, botham (< OE bodan, botm)</td><td></td><td>fundus "bottom, ground, foundation; farm, estate"</td><td>puthmḗn "bottom (cup, jar, sea)"</td><td>budhná "bottom, ground, base, depth"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Gaul bona "base, bottom, village" (found in several placenames: Bonna > Bonn; Windo-bona "white village" > Vienna; Bononia > Boulogne(-sur-Mer))</td><td></td><td>buzë "lip, edge" <PAlb budza bythë "bottom"</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Basic adjectives

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>bʰerǵʰ- "great, tall; hill, elevation"; bʰérǵʰonts "high, mighty"</td><td>borough, borough, Brough, bur-, burg, burgh, bury, -bury (< OE burg, burh "city, town, fortification"); barrow (< OE beorg)</td><td>baurgs "castle, city", OHG burg "fortress, citadel"; OHG Burgunt (a female personal name)</td><td>fortis "strong, powerful; firm" ⇒ ; LL Burgundia "Burgundy"; Fr Bourgogne</td><td></td><td>bṛhát, bṛhánt- "tall, elevated"; bráhman "lit. growth, expansion, development outpouring of the heart prayer, sacred word, mantra"; brahmán "worshiper"; barháyati "to invigorate"</td><td>Av barəzah‑ "height", Harā Bərəzaitī "a mythical mountain" (litt. "High Watchpost")</td><td>OCS brěgŭ "hill, slope; bank, shore"</td><td></td><td>MIr brí, MW bre, MBre bre, Gaul -briga "elevation, hill"; Gaul Brigantes (ethnonym); Celt Brigantia (name of a goddess), Ir Brigid (goddess) < PCelt Brigantī "The High One"</td><td>barjr "high"</td><td></td><td>A pärk- "to elevate"; B pärkare "long"</td><td>parkuš "tall"</td></tr><tr><td>weh₁-, weh₁ros "true"</td><td>OE wǣr "true"</td><td>wers as in allawerei "simplicity" Ger wahr Dut waar "true"</td><td>vērus "true" (> very, verify, verity, etc.)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS věra "faith, belief"</td><td></td><td>OIr. fír "true", W gwir "true"</td><td></td><td>urtë "quiet" <PAlb wara</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>medʰyo- "mid, middle"</td><td>mid, middle (< OE mid, middel)</td><td>midjis "middle"</td><td>medius "middle"</td><td>més(s)os "middle"</td><td>mádʰya- "middle"</td><td>Av maiδya- "middle"</td><td>OCS meždu "between", Russ. meža "boundary"</td><td>OPrus meddin "forest" (between villages), Lith medis, Latv mežs "tree"</td><td>OIr mid- "middle" < medʰu-; MW mei- "middle" < medʰyo-</td><td>mēǰ "middle"</td><td>mes, mjet "in between, middle"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>meǵ- "big"</td><td>much (< OE myc̣el "big, many")</td><td>mikils "big"</td><td>magnus "big"</td><td>mégas "big"</td><td>máha-, mahā́nt- "big"</td><td>Av mazant- "big"</td><td></td><td>OPrus mazs "smaller", Lith mažas "small"</td><td>OIr mochtae, MIr mag-, maige "big", MW mael "prince", W maes "field"</td><td>mec "big"</td><td>madh "big"</td><td>A mak, B makā "much"</td><td>mekkis "big"</td></tr><tr><td>dlongʰos, dl̥h₁gʰós "long";</td><td>long (< OE long, lang);</td><td>langs "long"</td><td>longus "long"</td><td>dolikhós "long, protracted";</td><td>dīrghá- "long"</td><td>Av darəga "long"</td><td>OCS dlĭgŭ "long";</td><td>Lith ilgas "long"</td><td></td><td></td><td>gjatë "long"</td><td></td><td>talugai- "long"</td></tr><tr><td>gʷerH₂- "heavy"</td><td></td><td>kaúrus "heavy"</td><td>grāvis "heavy"</td><td>barús "heavy"</td><td>gurú- "heavy"</td><td>Av gouru- "heavy-", NPers girān "heavy" < grāna- (influenced by frāna "full")</td><td>OCS gromada "big size, huge", gruz "a load, something heavy",</td><td>OPrus garrin "tree"</td><td>MIr bair "heavy (?)", W bryw "strong"</td><td></td><td>zor "brute force; great effort"</td><td>A kra-marts "heavy (?)", B krā-mär "burden" < gʷroH₂-mVr-</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁le(n)gʷʰ-, h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ro-, h₁ln̥gʷʰ-u- "light (in weight)"</td><td>light (< OE lēoht)</td><td>leihts "light" < h₁lengʷʰ-tos; OHG lungar "fast" < h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros</td><td>levis "light" < h₁legʷʰ-us</td><td>elakʷʰús "small" < h₁ln̥gʷʰ-us, elapʰrós "light, quick" < h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros</td><td>lagʰú-, ragʰú- "quick, light, small"</td><td>Av ragu-, fem. rǝvī "fast", superl. rǝnjišta- "fastest"</td><td>OCS lŭgŭkŭ "light"</td><td>OPrus langus "light", langsta "window", lankewingis "flexible", linktwei "to bend", Lith lengvas "light", lankstus "flexible", langas "window", lenkti "to bend"</td><td>OIr laigiu, laugu, MW llei "smaller"</td><td>lanǰ "breast"</td><td>lehtë "light-weight"</td><td>B lankutse "light"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂élyos, h₂ényos "other"; h₂énteros "second"</td><td>else (< OE elles); other (< OE ōþer)</td><td>aljis, anþar "other"</td><td>alius "other"</td><td>állos "other"</td><td>anyá-, ántara- "other"; aryas, Aryan, "else"</td><td>Av anya-, ainya-, OPers aniya- "other"; Av airiia, Aryan, "friend", "faithful", airiio "elsehow"; Ossetian ändär "other"; East Iranian hal-ci "whoever"</td><td>Old Sorbian wutory "other" < PSlav ǫtorŭ</td><td>OPrus antars "second", Lith antras "second"</td><td>OIr aile, W ail "other"; Gaul allos "other, second"</td><td>ayl "other"</td><td>lloj "sort, type"</td><td>A ālya-kə, B alye-kə "another"</td><td>Lydian aλa- "other"</td></tr><tr><td>néwo- "new"</td><td>new (< OE nīwe)</td><td>niujis "new"</td><td>novus "new"</td><td>né(w)os "new"</td><td>náva- "new"</td><td>Av nava- "new"</td><td>OCS novŭ "new"</td><td>OPrus nawas "new", Lith naujas "new"</td><td>OIr nūë, W newydd "new"</td><td>nor "new" < nowero-</td><td></td><td>A ñu, B ñune "new"</td><td>newa- "new"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂yuHn̥- "young"</td><td>young (< OE ġeong < h₂yuHn̥ḱós)</td><td>juggs "young"</td><td>juvenis "young", iuvencus "young"/"bullock"</td><td></td><td>yúvan- (yū́nas) "young"</td><td>Av yvan-, yavan- (yūnō) "youth, young man"</td><td>OCS junŭ "young"</td><td>Lith jaunas "young"</td><td>OIr ōac "young", W ieuanc "young" < H₂yuHn̥k̂ós</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sen- "old"</td><td></td><td>sineigs "old (person)"</td><td>senex "old"</td><td>hénos "former, from a former period"</td><td>sánas "old"</td><td>Av hana- "old"</td><td>OCS sedyi "grey-headed"</td><td>OPrus sentwei "to get old", Lith senas "old"</td><td>OIr sen "old", Old Welsh hen "old"</td><td>hin "old"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>nogʷ- "naked"</td><td>naked (< OE nacod "naked")</td><td>naqaþs "naked"</td><td>nudus "naked"</td><td>gumnós "naked"</td><td>nagnás "naked"</td><td>NPers loxt "naked"</td><td>OCS nagŭ "naked"</td><td>OPrus nags "naked", Lith nuogas "naked"</td><td>OIr nocht "naked"; W noeth "naked, bare"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>nekumant- "naked, bare"</td></tr><tr><td>bʰosós "bare, barefoot"</td><td>bare (< OE bær)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS bosŭ "barefooted, unshod"</td><td>Lith basas "barefooted"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>n̥mr̥tós "immortal"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ámbrotos "immortal, divine"</td><td>amṛ́ta- "immortal"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂eḱ- "sharp"</td><td>edge (< OE eċġ)</td><td></td><td>aceō (acēre) "I am sour"; acidus "sour"; acētum "vinegar"; acus "needle, pin"; astus "craft, guile", astūtus "shrewd, astute"</td><td>akmé "point, edge"; oxús "sharp, pointed; quick; clever"</td><td>aśman "stone, rock; sharp one"</td><td>Persian āčār "pickle, marinade"</td><td>OCS ostĭnŭ "sharp point"</td><td>Lith aštrus "sharp, spicy", ašmuo "blade", akstinas "pointy and sharp item"</td><td>W eithin gorse</td><td></td><td>teh "blade" from eh "sharpen"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bel- "strong"</td><td></td><td></td><td>dēbilis "feeble, weak"</td><td>βελτίων "better"</td><td>bála- "force, strength, power"</td><td></td><td>Russ bolʹšój "big, large, great"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Light and color

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>lewk- "light, brightness"</td><td>light (< OE lēoht)</td><td>liuhaþ (liuhadis) "light"</td><td>lūceō (lūcēre) "to shine", lūx "light"</td><td>leukós "bright, shining, white"; Leuce "white (poplar); name of a nymph"; Leucothea "bright goddess"</td><td>rócate "(he) shines", roká- "light", loka- "world, place"</td><td>Av raočant- "shining", raočah "light"; OPers raučah NPers rowshan "light"; Kurd roj "sun, light, day", ron "light"</td><td>OCS luča "ray, flash" < loukyā</td><td>OPrus lauk "bright", lauksna "star", laukas "field", Lith laukas "outside, field"</td><td>OIr luchair "shine"; W llachar "bright", llug "shimmer"</td><td>loys "light"</td><td></td><td>AB lyuk/luk- "to shine"</td><td>luk(k)- "to shine"</td></tr><tr><td>bʰel- "to shine"</td><td>balefire (< OE bǣlfȳr)</td><td>ON bál "fire"</td><td>fulgeō "I flash, glitter"; flagrō "I burn, blaze"; flamma "flame, fire"</td><td>phlégō "I scorch, kindle"; Phlegyas "fiery"; Phlegethon "flaming"; phlégma "flame, inflammation"; phalós "white"</td><td>bhrája- "fire, shining"; bhāla- "splendor"</td><td></td><td>OCS bělŭ "white"</td><td>Lith baltas, Latv balts "fair, white"</td><td></td><td></td><td>balë "white spot"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂erǵ- "shining, bright" h₂r̥ǵn̥tóm "white metal (silver)"</td><td></td><td></td><td>argentum "silver (metal)"; Fal arcentelom "a small silver coin"</td><td>Myc a-ku-ro, árguros "silver"; argós "white, bright"; Argiope "silver face"</td><td>Skt rajatá- "silver; silver-coloured"; árjuna- "white, clear, silvery"</td><td>Av ərəzatəm "silver"</td><td>Ru yarkiy "the bright one"; yarkostj "brightness"</td><td></td><td>Celtib arkato[bezom] "silver [mine]"; Ir Airget[lám] "silver[-hand] (title of Nuada)"; OIr argat, OW argant "silver"</td><td>arcat' "silver"</td><td></td><td>A ārkyant "silver"; A ārki-, B ārkwi "white"</td><td>ḫarkiš "white, bright"</td></tr><tr><td>ḱweyt- "to shine, white"</td><td>white (< OE hwīt)</td><td>ƕeits "white"</td><td></td><td></td><td>śvetá- "white; bright"; śvindate "to shine"; áśvitan "to become bright"</td><td>Av spaēta "white; bright"; NPers sefid "white"</td><td>OCS světŭ "light, world"; světiti "to shine, illuminate"; svĭtěti "to get bright"; svěšta "candle"; cvětŭ "bright color; bloom, flower"</td><td>Lith šviesà "light"; šviẽsti "to shine"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kr̥snós "black; dark, dusky"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>kṛṣṇa- "black, dark, dark-blue" > Kṛṣṇa-</td><td>NPers kersne "dirt, dirty"</td><td>OCS črŭnŭ "black" ⇒</td><td>Lith kir̃snas "black (of a horse)"; OPrus kirsnan "black"</td><td></td><td></td><td>sorrë "crow" <PAlb tšārnā</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁rewdʰ-, h₁rowdʰ-os, h₁rudʰ-rós "red"</td><td>red (< OE rēad < h₁rowdʰ-os)</td><td>rauþs (raudis) "red" < h₁rowdʰ-os</td><td>ruber "red" < h₁rudʰ-rós; Umb rufru "red"</td><td>Myc e-ru-ta-ra, e-ru-to-ro; erutʰrós "red" < h₁rudʰ-rós; Erytheia "name of a nymph" (litt. "the red one");</td><td>rudʰirá- "red" < H₁rudʰ-rós mixed with H₁rudʰ-i-; rṓhita- "red"; lōhá- "reddish" < H₁roudʰ-os</td><td>Av raoiδita- "red"</td><td>OCS rudŭ "red"; Czech rudá "red"; Pol rudy "red-haired"</td><td>Lith raũdonas "red", raũdas "reddish-brown", rudas "brown"</td><td>OIr rúad, W rhudd "red", rhwd "rust"; Gaul Roud- (in personal names)</td><td></td><td>pruth "redhead" (< PAlb apa-ruđa)</td><td>A rtär, B ratre "red" < h₁rudʰ-rós</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʰel-, ǵʰelh₃- "green, yellow"</td><td>gold; yellow (< OE geolu); yolk (< OE ġeoloca)</td><td>gulþ "gold"</td><td>helvus "honey-yellow"; gilvus "pale yellow (of horses)"</td><td>kʰlōrós "pale green"; Chloe "blooming; epithet of Demeter"</td><td>híraņya- "gold"; hári- "yellow"</td><td>Av zaranyam "gold"; zári "yellow"; Zarinaia < Saka Zarinayā "the golden one [name of a queen]"</td><td>OCS zelenĭ "green"; Rus zóloto "gold"; Pol złoty "gold"; żółty "yellow"</td><td>Latv zèlts "gold"; Lith geltonas "yellow", geltas "yellow"; žel̃vas "golden"; žalias "green"</td><td>MWel gell "yellow"</td><td></td><td>? diell "sun" <PAlb delwa</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱey- "grey, dark shade"</td><td>hue (< OE hīew "appearance, form; hue, color")</td><td>hiwi "form, show, appearance"</td><td></td><td></td><td>śyāvá- "dark; deep brown"; śyāmá- "dark, black, blue, brown, grey" ⇒</td><td>Av siiāuua "dark" (cf. Siyâvash < Siiāuuaršan "the one with black stallions")</td><td>Pol siwy "grey"</td><td>Lith šývas "light grey"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰer-, bʰerH- "brown" (See also bʰébʰrus)</td><td>bear (animal) (< OE bera); brown (< OE brūn)</td><td>ON bjǫrn "bear (animal)";</td><td></td><td>phrū́nē "toad"</td><td>babhrú "deep brown, reddish brown; tawny"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith bė́ras "reddish brown"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Positive qualities

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h₁wésus "good, excellent"</td><td></td><td>iusiza "better"; (Germanic names, e.g., Wisigoth- "the Visigoths")</td><td></td><td></td><td>vásu "excellent, good; beneficient; goods, property"</td><td>Av vohū "good"</td><td>OCS veselŭ "merry, joyful, happy"</td><td></td><td>Gaul Vesu- (in personal names: Vesuavus, Segovesus, Bellovesus)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Luw wāsu- "good"; Pal wašu "well"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁su- "good"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>eu- "good, well" (when used prefixally), e.g., eúphoros "well-bearing" (> "euphoria"); eukháristos "good grace"; euángelos "bringing good news"</td><td>su- "good" (used prefixally), e.g., suprabhātam "good morning" (See also bhā́s); supraśna- "inquiry as to welfare, lit. good question"</td><td>Av hu "good"</td><td>OCS sŭ- "good" (used prefixally), e.g., sŭ-čęstĭnŭ "happy, lit. good part"; sŭdravĭje "health", Russ zdoróv'je; sŭrěsti "to meet, encounter"</td><td></td><td>W hy- "good, well"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁sónts "being, existing, real, true" (See also H₁es-)</td><td>sooth (< OE sōþ "truth"); soothe (< OE sōþian "to prove the validity of, to confirm as true"); soothsayer (originally "truth-teller") (< PGmc sanþaz + sagjaną "truth + say"); sin (implying "truly guilty") (< OE synn); OE sōþlīċe "truly, really", later "amen"</td><td>sunjis "true, truthful, correct"</td><td>sōns "guilty, criminal" (compare sin); insōns "innocent"; sonticus "dangerous, serious, critical"</td><td></td><td>sát "being, essence, reality" (also used in compounds, e.g., sad·guru); sattvá- "essence, existence, spirit; creature"; satyá- "true, real, genuine; sincere, honest, valid"; satī́ "good, virtuous, faithful wife" (> suttee)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>senë/send"thing" gjë "thing" < all from PAlb sana</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sweh₂d-, swéh₂dus "sweet"</td><td>sweet (< OE swēte)</td><td></td><td>suāvis "sweet, pleasant, delicious"</td><td>hēdús "sweet"</td><td>svādú "delicious, tasty, sweet"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Construction, fabrication

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h₂éyos "copper, bronze"</td><td>ore (< OE ār)</td><td>aiz "copper"</td><td>aes "copper, bronze, brass; money, fee"</td><td></td><td>áyas "metal, iron"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰwer- "door, doorway, gate"</td><td>door (< OE dor, duru)</td><td>daúr, daúrō "door"</td><td>forēs (pl.) "door"</td><td>tʰurā "door"</td><td>dvā́r, dvā́ras (pl.) "door"</td><td>Av dvarǝm (acc.) "gate, court"; OPers duvarayā "at the gate" NPers dar "door"</td><td>OCS dvĭri "door"</td><td>OPrus dwarris "gate, goal", dwars "estate", Lith durys "door", dvaras "manor";Latg durovys "door"</td><td>OIr dorus "door" < Proto-Celtic dworestu-, W dôr "door" < dʰureH₂</td><td>duṙn "door"</td><td>derë "door"</td><td>B twere "doors"</td><td>an-durza "within"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂(e)nh₂t- "doorpost"</td><td></td><td></td><td>antae "anteroom"</td><td></td><td>ā́tā "doorpost"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dem- "to build (up), put together"</td><td>timber (< OE timber "building material"); teem (< OE temian "to fit"); toft (< OE toft)</td><td>timrjan "build, construct, strengthen"</td><td></td><td>démō "to build, construct, make"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>domo-, domu- "house", "home"</td><td></td><td></td><td>domus (domūs) "house"</td><td>dómos "house"</td><td>dámas "house"</td><td>Av dąm, dąmi "in the house"; dǝmā̆na-, nmāna- "house" < dm-ā̆na-</td><td>OCS domŭ "house"</td><td>OPrus dimstis "porch", Lith dimstis "entryway", namas "house"</td><td>MIr dom-liacc "house of stones"</td><td>tun "house"</td><td>dhomë "room"</td><td>?A tem-, B tam- "be born"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʰerdʰ-, gʰordʰ-os- "enclosure, fence"</td><td>yard (< OE ġeard "enclosure"); garden (< AngNor gardin < Frank gardo)</td><td>gards "yard, court"; ON garðr "fence, enclosed space"</td><td>hortus "garden"</td><td>kʰórtos "feeding place for animals"</td><td>gṛhá "house"</td><td>Av gərəδa "daeva cave"</td><td>OCS gradŭ "fortification; city"</td><td>Latv gãrds; Lith gar̃das "fold, pen"</td><td>OIr gort "standing crop", W garth "cliff; enclosure"</td><td>OArm gerdastan "the body of servants and captives; estate" (either a borrowing from Iranian or inherited)</td><td>gardh "fence, enclosure, barricade"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kʷekʷlo- "wheel" (See also kʷel-)</td><td>wheel (< OE hwēol, hweogol < PGerm hweg(w)ulaz < kʷekʷlós)</td><td>ON hjōl, hvēl "wheel" < PGerm hweh(w)ulaz < kʷékʷlos</td><td></td><td>kúklos "circle", (pl.) "wheels"</td><td>cakrá- "wheel"</td><td>Av čaxra- "wheel"</td><td>OCS kolo "wheel"</td><td>OPrus kellin "wheel", Lith kaklas "neck"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>A kukäl, B kokale "wagon"</td><td>kugullas "donut"</td></tr><tr><td>Hreth₂- "wheel", "wagon"</td><td></td><td>OHG Rad "wheel"</td><td>rota "wheel", "wagon"</td><td></td><td>rátha "chariot, car"</td><td>Av raθa "wagon", "chariot"</td><td></td><td>Lith rãtai "wagon" (pl.), rãtas "wheel" (sg.)</td><td>OIr roth "wheel", "circle", W rhod wheel</td><td></td><td>rreth "ring, hoop, tyre (for carriages)" (< Hróth₂ikos)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>néh₂us "vessel, boat"</td><td>OE nōwend "shipmaster, sailor"</td><td>ON naust "boathouse"; OIc nōr "ship"</td><td>nāvis "ship"</td><td>naûs "ship"; Myc na-u-do-mo "shipbuilders"</td><td>naú, nāva "ship"</td><td>Pers nâv "boat, ship" (archaic)</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr nó, nau "boat"</td><td>OArm naw "ship, boat"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂wĺ̥h₁neh₂ "wool"</td><td>wool (< OE wull)</td><td>wulla "wool"</td><td>lāna "wool"</td><td>lênos "wool, fleece (pl.)", Dor lânos</td><td>ū́rṇā "wool, woolen thread"</td><td>Av varənā "wool"</td><td>OCS vlĭna "wool", OESlav vŭlna "wool"</td><td>Latv vil̃na, Lith vìlna "wool", OPrus wilna "skirt (made of wool)"</td><td>OIr olann, MBret gloan, glan, OW gulan "wool"</td><td>OArm gełmn "fleece, wool"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ḫulanaš "wool"</td></tr><tr><td>s(y)uH- "to sew"</td><td>sew (< OE sēowan)</td><td>siujan "to sew"</td><td>suō (suere) "to sew"; sūtūra "thread, suture"</td><td>humḗn "sinew"</td><td>sī́vyati "(he) sews", syūtá- "sewn"; sū́tra- "thread, string"</td><td></td><td>OCS šijǫ (šiti) "to sew"</td><td>OPrus šutun "to sew", Lith siūti "to sew", Latg šyut "to sew"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>sum(m)anza(n), šuel (?), šuil (?) "thread"</td></tr><tr><td>teks- "to fashion, construct"</td><td>OE þeox "spear"</td><td>OHG dehsa, dehsala "hatchet"</td><td>texō (texere) "to weave"</td><td>téktōn "carpenter", tíktō "I give birth"</td><td>takṣati, tā́ṣṭi "(he) fashions"</td><td>Av tašaiti "(he) cuts out, manufactures"; OPers us-tašanā "stairway" < "construction"; MPers tāšīδan "to do carpentry"</td><td>OCS tešǫ (tesati) "to hew",</td><td>OPrus tesatun "to hew", Lith tašyti "to hew"</td><td>OIr tāl "axe" < tōkslo-</td><td></td><td>teshë "cloth, robe"</td><td></td><td>takkeszi "puts together"</td></tr><tr><td>webʰ- "to weave"</td><td>weave (< OE wefan), web (<P.Gmc. wabjan)</td><td>OHG weban "to weave"; ON vefa</td><td></td><td>hupʰaínō "I weave"</td><td>ubhnā́ti "ties together"; ūṛna-vābhi- "spider" (litt. "wool-weaver")</td><td>Av ubdaēna- "made of cloth"; NPers bāfad "(he) weaves"</td><td>viti "weave"</td><td>Lith vyti "to twist"</td><td>W gweu "knit, weave"</td><td></td><td>venj "I weave" < webʰnyō</td><td>A wpantär (them. pres.), B wāp- "to weave"</td><td>wēpta- "wove"</td></tr><tr><td>werǵ- "to work"</td><td>work (< OE weorc, wyrc̣an)</td><td>waúrkjan "to work"</td><td>urgeō (urgēre) "to push, drive"</td><td>(w)érgon "work", érdō, hrézdō "I work" < wérĝ-yoH₂, wréĝ-yoH₂</td><td>varcas "activity" (? not in Pokorny)</td><td>Av varəza- "work, activity", vərəzyeiti "(he) works"; NPers varz, barz "field work, husbandry"</td><td>vrǔšiti "to act, to do"</td><td>OPrus wargs "bad, evil, malicious, vicious", wargtwei "to torment oneself, to suffer", Lith vargas "misery", vargti "to suffer"</td><td>MW gwreith "deed" < wreĝ-tu-</td><td>gorc "work "</td><td>rregj "to clean"</td><td>A wärk-, B wārk- "to shear"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wes- "to clothe, wear clothes"</td><td>wear (< OE werian)</td><td>wasjan "to clothe"</td><td>vestis "clothing"</td><td>héstai "gets dressed"</td><td>váste "(s/he) gets dressed"; vástra- "clothing"</td><td>Av vaste, vaŋhaiti "(he) gets dressed"</td><td></td><td>OPrus westi "corset"</td><td>W gwisg "clothing"</td><td>z-genum "I put on (clothes)" < wes-nu-</td><td>vesh "dress" veshje "clothing"</td><td>B wastsi, wästsi "clothing"</td><td>wassezzi "(he) clothes"</td></tr></tbody></table>

Self-motion, rest

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>h₁es- "to be", h₁es-ti "is", h₁és-mi "am" Cf. Indo-European copula (See also h₁sónts)</td><td>is (< OE is), am</td><td>ist "is"</td><td>sum (esse) "I am (to be)"; est "it is"</td><td>estí "is,"; Dorian Greek entí "(they) are" <- h₁s-enti</td><td>ásti "is"; ásmi "am"</td><td>Av asti "is"; Persian ast "is"</td><td>OCS jestŭ "is"</td><td>OPrus ast "is", ēst "almost", Lith esti "is"</td><td>OIr is "is"; OW hint "(they) are" <- h₁s-enti; W sydd "(which) is"</td><td>em "I am"</td><td>është "is"</td><td>B ste "is"</td><td>ēszi "is"</td></tr><tr><td>bʰuh₂- "to become" Cf. Indo-European copula</td><td>be (< OE bēon); OE būan "to dwell"</td><td>bauan "to dwell"</td><td>fuī "I was"</td><td>pʰúomai "I become", épʰū "became"</td><td>bʰávati "become, is", ábʰūt "became, was"</td><td>Av bavaiti, OPers bavatiy "(he) becomes"</td><td>OCS byti "to become, be"</td><td>OPrus butwei "to be", Lith būti "to be"</td><td>Gaul biiete "be! (imperative)"; OIr buith "being", W bod "to be"</td><td>busanim "sprout up"</td><td>buj, bûj "I dwell, stay overnight" < bunjō</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sed-, si-sd- "to sit"</td><td>sit (< OE sittan < sed-yo-nom)</td><td>sitan "to sit"</td><td>sedeō (sedēre) "to sit", sīdō "I sit down" < si-sd-oH₂</td><td>hézdomai "I sit" < sed-yo-, hizdō "I set" < si-sd-oH₂</td><td>sátsi "(he) sits", aor. ásadat "sat"; sī́dati "(he) sits" < si-sd-eti; Upaniṣad lit. "sit-down-beside" < upa: 'by, beside', ni: 'down', sad: 'sit'</td><td>Av ni-šaŋhasti "(he) sits down", opt. hazdyā-t "(he) should sit", hiδaiti "(he) sits" < si-sd-eti; OPers caus. niya-šād-ayam "I set"</td><td>OCS sěždǫ (sěděti) "to sit"</td><td>OPrus sistwei "to sit down", Lith sedėti "to be sitting", sėsti "to sit"</td><td>OIr sa(i)did "sits"; Br hezañ "to stop"; W eistedd "to sit"</td><td>nstim "I sit" (< ni-zdyō), hecanim (< sed-s-an-yō) "I sit on, I ride"</td><td>shëtis "to walk"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>legʰ- "to lie down"</td><td>lie (< OE lic̣gan)</td><td>ligan "to lie down"</td><td>lectus "bed"</td><td>lékʰomai "I lie down"</td><td>laṅghate "(he) leans, lies down"</td><td>NPers ley "lie down"</td><td>OCS ležǫ (ležati) "to lie down"</td><td>OPrus laztwei "to lie down"</td><td>OIr laigid "lies down"</td><td></td><td>lagje "city quarter"</td><td>A läk- "to lie", B lyśalyñe "(act of) lying down"</td><td>lagari "(he) lies down"</td></tr><tr><td>ḱey- "to lie down; settle, bed, cozy, familiar"</td><td>home (< OE hām "village, home" < k̂oi-mos); hewe "domestic, servant" (< OE hīwa "family member")</td><td>háims (háimáis) "village, town" < k̂oi-mis; heiwafrauja "marriage"</td><td>cīvis "city dweller, citizen" < k̂ei-wis ⇒ ; cūnae "cradle; nest"; Cūnīna (Roman goddess who protects infants in the cradle) cieō; "I put in motion; act, move, stir; rouse" ⇒</td><td>keîmai "I lie (idle, sick, dead, etc.)"; kíō "I go" (Homeric); kīnéō "I move, set in motion, remove; inflect (grammar); meddle; stir on" (> kinetic, cinema, etc.); koítē "bed, place of rest; lair; lodging"; koitā́zō "I put to bed, cause to rest"</td><td>śētē (older śáyē) "(he) lies", śērē "they lie"; śayú "orphan"; śéva- "dear, precious"; śivá- "favorable, happy, fortunate; auspicious" (later applied to the god Rudra, first as Śiva-rudra, then simply Śiva; also spelled Shiva)</td><td>Av saēte "(he) lies", sōire "they lie"</td><td>OCS sěmija "family"; sěmĭ "household member"</td><td>OPrus seimi "family", kaims "village", Lith šeima "family", kaimas "village" (via Germanic); Latv sieva "wife"</td><td>OIr cóim, cóem, OW cum "dear"</td><td>sirem "I love" < k̂eiro-</td><td>komb "nation, people"</td><td></td><td>kitta, kittari "lies"; Luwian ziyari "lies"</td></tr><tr><td>tḱey- "to settle, live; cultivate"</td><td></td><td></td><td>sinō "I let, permit, allow; set down"; situs "permitted, allowed; laid, set down; placed" ⇒ ; dēsinō "I leave off, cease, desist" (> desinence); pōnō < po + sinō "I place, put, lay; set up" ⇒</td><td>ktízō "I found, build, establish; populate; produce"; eüktímenos "well-built, nice place"; ktísis "a founding, settling; creature"; ktílos "tame, docile, obidient"; ktísma "colony, foundation"</td><td>kṣéti "(s/he) abides, stays, dwells; remains"; kṣití "abode, habitation, dwelling; the earth"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>steh₂- "to stand (i.e. be standing)"</td><td>stand (< OE standan)</td><td>standan "to stand"; OHG stān, stēn "to stand"</td><td>stō (stāre) "to stand", sistō (sistere) "to cause to stand"</td><td>Doric hístāmi "I stand"</td><td>sthā- / tíṣṭhati "(he) stands"</td><td>Av hištaiti "(he) stands"; OPers impf. a-ištata "(he) stood"</td><td>OCS stajǫ (stati) "to stand up"</td><td>OPrus stalitwei "to stand", Lith stoti "to stand, to stop"</td><td>OIr tair-(ṡ)issiur "I stand"; W sefyll "to stand"</td><td>stanam "I build; gain"</td><td>mbështet, pshtet "I support"</td><td>B stäm- "to stand", ste "is", "stare" "(they) are"</td><td>istanta- "to stay, delay"</td></tr><tr><td>h₁ey- "to go"</td><td>yede (< OE ēode "went")</td><td>iddja "went"</td><td>eō (īre) "to go"</td><td>eĩmi "I (will) go"</td><td>éti "(he) goes", yánti "(they) go"</td><td>Av aēiti "(he) goes", yeinti "(they) go"; OPers aitiy "goes"</td><td>OCS jiditi "to move away, to arrive", jidene "coming"</td><td>OPrus eitwei "to go", Lith eiti "to go by walking"</td><td>W wyf "I am"; OIr ethaid "goes" < it-āt-</td><td>iǰanem (aorist ēǰ) "I climb down" < i-gh-</td><td>iki "to leave; flee" H₁(e)i-K-</td><td>A yā "he went", B yatsi "to go" < yā-</td><td>īt "go!"</td></tr><tr><td>gʷem- "to come"</td><td>come (< OE cuman)</td><td>qiman "to come"; OSax cuman [an liudi] "to come (to people) [to be born]"</td><td>veniō (venīre) "to come"</td><td>baínō "I go"</td><td>gámati "(he) goes", aor. ágan, gan "(he) went"</td><td>Av ǰamaiti "goes"; OAv inj. uz-ǰǝ̄n "(he) goes", pl. gǝmǝn "they go"</td><td></td><td>OPrus gimtwei "to be born", Lith gimti "to be born", Latv dzimt "to bear (a son)"</td><td></td><td>ekn (< h₁e-gʷem-t) "(he) came"</td><td></td><td>A käm-, kum-, B käm-, kam-, śem "to come"</td><td>Luw zammantis "newborn child" (?)</td></tr><tr><td>Hyewdʰ- "to move swiftly, to move upright, to rise (as if to fight)"</td><td></td><td></td><td>iubeō "I authorize, legitimate; bid, command, order"; iussus "order, command, decree, ordinance"</td><td>euthús "straight, direct"; eîthar "at once, immediately, forthwith"; husmī́nē "battle, conflict, combat"</td><td>yúdhyate "to fight, battle; wage war"; yodháyati "to engage in battle; to overcome in war, to be a match for; to lead to war, to cause to fight"; yuddhá- "battle, fight, war"; yoddhṛ "fighter, warrior, soldier"; yudhmá- "hero, warrior"</td><td></td><td>OCS oiminŭ "warrior"; Pol judzić "to incite, instigate"</td><td>Lith judėti "to move"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>peth₂- "to spread out; fly (spread wings)" (See also péth₂r̥)</td><td>fathom (< OE fæþm)</td><td></td><td>petō "I ask, beg, request; aim; attack, thrust at"; pateō "I am open; accessible, attainable; increase, extend" (> patent); pandō "I spread, open out, extend; unfold, expand" (> expand); passus < pat-s-tus "spread out; step, pace" (> pass); impetus "attack, assault; rapid motion"; petulāns "impudent, wanton; petulant" > petulant; patera "broad flat dish, saucer"; propitius "favorable, well-disposed" (> propitious)</td><td>pétomai "I fly; rush, dart; make haste"; pī́ptō "I fall, throw self down"; petánnūmi "I spread out, open"; ptôma "fall; misfortune, calamity; ruin" (> symptom); ptôsis "falling; (grammar) case, inflection"; ptōtikós "capable of inflexion"; pétalon "leaf (plant, flower or tree)" > petal</td><td>pátati "(s/he) flies; descends, falls"; pātáyati "(s/he) causes to fly, throws; causes to fall; pours, spills"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ped- "to walk, step; stumble, fall" (See also pōds)</td><td>fetter (< OE feter); OE fæt "step; stride; pace, gait</td><td></td><td>impediō "I hinder, impede, obstruct" (> impede); expediō "I unfetter; remove impediments; prepare" (> expedite); pecco < ped-co "I sin, transgress; offend" ⇒ ; pedica "fetter, shackle; snare"; pessum < ped·tum "to the lowest part; to the bottom; in ruin"; pessimus "worst, lowest" (> pessimism); peior "worse" (> pejorative); oppidum "town" (step > ground > town)</td><td>pédon "ground, earth"; pedíon "open country, plain, field; female genitals"; pēdón "oar blade, oar"; pēdálion "steering paddle"; pezós < peďďós "on foot, walking; on land, infantry"; pódion "base" ⇒</td><td>pádyate "(s/he) moves, goes; falls"; pādáyati "(s/he) causes to fall, drops"; pada- "step, stride, pace; footstep, vestige; plot of ground; a fourth"</td><td></td><td>padati, pasti "to fall"; pěšĭ "on foot, pedestrian"; padežĭ "fall; downfall, disaster"; pod "ground, floor"</td><td>Lith pėda "foot"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sekʷ- "to follow"</td><td>OE sec̣g "follower, companion, man"</td><td>ON seggr "hero"</td><td>sequor (sequī) "to follow" ⇒</td><td>hépomai "I follow"</td><td>sácate "(he) follows"</td><td>Av hačaitē, hačaiti "(he) follows"</td><td>šagati "to walk, stride, step"; Russ šag "step"</td><td>OPrus sektwei "to shallow [To breathe lightly]", Lith sekti "to follow"</td><td>OIr sechithir "follows"</td><td></td><td>shoh " I see"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>steygʰ- "to go, climb, march"</td><td>stair (< OE stǣġer); sty (< OE stīgan); stile (< OE stiġel, stigol)</td><td>steigan "climb" Ger steigen "to ascend, climb, rise"</td><td>vestīgō "I follow a track, search" (> investigate); vestīgium "footprint, track; trace, mark; sole of foot" (> "vestige")</td><td>stíkhos "a row (of soldiers); a line of poetry" > Russ stix "verse, a line of poetry; poem (plu)"; stoîkhos "row, course, file"; stoikheîon "one of a row, one of a series; element" > stoichio- (> stoichiometry, etc.); stókhos "pillar of brick; target"</td><td>stighnóti "(s/he) steps, steps up, mounts"</td><td></td><td>OCS stignǫti "to attain; reach"; stĭza "path"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>? Shteg "path"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wert- "to turn, rotate"</td><td>-ward (< OE -weard "facing, turned toward"); worth (obsolete meaning "to become", compare German werden) (< OE weorþ); weird (< OE wyrd, wurd "fate, destiny"); OE weorþung "an evaluation, appreciation"</td><td>wairþan "become, happen" Ger werden "to become, to get; to turn; to be, happen"; Wurst "sausage, wurst" (< PGmc "something twisted")</td><td>vertō "I turn, revolve; turn around, reverse, retreat" ⇒ ; vertex, vortex "whirlpool"; vertīgō "giddiness"; prōsus, prorsus < proversus "forwards, towards" > prose; re- < PIE wret-, metathesis of wert- "re-" (> re- (again, repetition, etc.))</td><td></td><td>vartate "(it) turns, rotates; moves, advances; occurs"; vartana- "a turning; conduct, behavior, intercourse"; vartayáti "(it) turns" (transitive, causative); vártman "track; way, course, path"</td><td></td><td>OCS vrĭtěti "to turn"; vrotiti "to return"; vrěteno "spindle"; vrota "gate, door"; vratŭ "turn, rotor, wheel"; vrěmę < vertmen "hour; time" (Compare Skt vártman)</td><td>Lith versti "to turn", vartai "gate"</td><td></td><td></td><td>rris "to grow, to increase"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰegʷ- "to run, flee"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>phobéō "I put to flight, terrify, alarm; threaten"; phóbos "fear, terror; fright, panic; flight, retreat"</td><td>bhājáyati "(s/he) causes to flee"</td><td>Kurd bazdan "to run, to escape"</td><td>OCS běgati, běžati "to flee, run, escape";</td><td>Lith bėgti "to run"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰewg- "to flee"</td><td></td><td></td><td>fugiō "I flee"; fuga "flight, escape"</td><td>pheúgō "I flee"; phugḗ "flight, escape"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith baugus "scary", baugštus "scared easily"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Object motion

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>bʰer- "to carry"</td><td>bear (< OE beran); burden, burthen (< OE byrþen)</td><td>baíran "to carry"</td><td>ferō (ferre) "to carry"; lucifer "light-bearing, light-bringing"</td><td>pʰerō "I carry"; khristóphoros "Christ-bearing"</td><td>bʰarati "(he) carries"</td><td>Av baraiti "(he) carries"; OPers barantiy "they carry"; NPers bordan "to carry"; Kurd birin "to carry, to take"</td><td>OCS berǫ (bĭrati) "to carry"</td><td>Lith berti "to pour non liquid"</td><td>OIr biru "I carry"; W beru "to flow"</td><td>berem "I carry"</td><td>bie "I carry"; barrë "load, burden"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>weǵʰ- "to convey"</td><td>weigh (< OE wegan "carry"); way (< OE weġ); wain "wagon" (< OE wæġn)</td><td>ga-wigan "to move, shake"</td><td>vehō (vehere) "to convey"</td><td>Pamphylian wekʰétō "he should bring"; Cypriot éwekse "brought there"</td><td>váhati "(he) drives"; vahana- (< vah) "divine mount or vehicle of Hindu deities" (lit. "a carrying")</td><td>Av vazaiti "(he) leads, carries"</td><td>OCS vezǫ (vesti) "to drive"</td><td>OPrus weztun "to ride", Lith vežti "to drive"</td><td>OIr fēn, W gwain (type of wagon) < weǵʰ-no-; W arwain "to lead"</td><td></td><td>vjedh "I steal"</td><td></td><td>Hier Luw wa-zi/a- "drive"</td></tr><tr><td>yew-, yewg- "to join, yoke, tie together" (See also yugóm)</td><td></td><td>juk "yoke" ON eykr draft animal; ON eyki vehicle, cart</td><td>iungō "I yoke, join" ⇒ ; iūxtā "nearly; near, close to"; coniunx, coniux "spouse, partner (husband or wife)"</td><td>zeúgnūmi "I yoke, saddle; join, link together"; zeûgma "band, bond, that which is used for joining; bridge of boats"; zeûgos "pair, two things, persons or animals seen as a pair"</td><td>yunákti "(s/he) yokes, harnesses, joins"; yóga- "yoking, act of joining; yoke, team, vehicle; employment, use, performance; remedy, cure; means, device, way, manner, method; trick, fraud; undertaking; connection, relation; fitness, suitability; application, concentration, union, yoga"; yóktra- "fastening or tying instrument; rope, thong, halter"; yugmá- "pair, couple; Gemini (zodiac sign); junction, confluence"; yújya- "union, alliance"; yugya- "a vehicle, chariot; draft animal"; yuj (root noun) "a yoke-fellow, companion, associate; pair, couple; the Aśvins"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith jungiu "I join"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂eǵ- "to lead, drive"</td><td></td><td>ON aka "to drive"</td><td>agō (agere) "to drive, do"</td><td>ágō "I lead"</td><td>ájati "(he) drives"</td><td>Av azaiti "(he) drives"; Kurd ajotin "to drive"</td><td>ehati "to drive"</td><td></td><td>OIr ad-aig "compels"; OW agit, hegit "goes"</td><td>acem "I lead"</td><td></td><td>A ak-, B āk- "go, lead"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂eḱs- "axis, axle" < h₂eǵ-</td><td>OE eax</td><td></td><td>axis "axle"</td><td></td><td>ákṣa- "axle"</td><td></td><td>Russian osь "axis, axle"</td><td>Lith ašis "axle, axis"</td><td>W echel "axle, axis"</td><td></td><td>ashkë "wood splinter <PAlb a(k)škā "axis"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰeh₁-, dʰh₁- "to place, put"</td><td>do (< OE dōn)</td><td>deds "deed"</td><td>faciō (facere) "to do" < dʰh₁-k-yoh₂; con-ditus "built" (orig. "put together"), ab-ditus "removed" (orig. "put away") < Proto-Italic -θatos < dʰh₁-tos</td><td>títʰēmi "I put" < dʰí-dʰeh₁-mi</td><td>dádʰāti "(he) puts" < dʰé-dʰeh₁-ti</td><td>Av daδāiti "(he) puts"; OPers impf. adadā "(he) established"</td><td>OCS děti "to lay"</td><td>OPrus ditun "to put", Lith dėti "to put"</td><td>Gaulish dede "he put (pt.)"; W dodi "to place, to put";OIr -tarti "he gives" < Proto-Celtic to-ro-ad-dīt < -dʰeh₁-t</td><td>dnel "to put"; ed "he put (past)"</td><td>dhatë "place, location" < dʰh₁-teh₂</td><td>A tā-, täs-, tas-, B tes- "to lay" < dʰeh₁-s-</td><td>dāi "puts"</td></tr><tr><td>stel- "to put, place, locate; be set, firm"</td><td>stall (< OE steall); stell (non-standard) "to place, set up" (< OE stellan)</td><td>Ger stellen "to put, place, position"</td><td>locus < stlocus "place, spot, location" ⇒ ; stultus, stolidus "foolish, stupid"; stolō "shoot, branch" > stolon (botany); stolus < AG stólos "navigation; fleet equipment"</td><td>stéllō "I send; make ready, prepare; summon"; stólos "expedition; army, fleet"; apóstolos "one sent forth; messenger, envoy" > apostle; epistolḗ < epistéllō "message, letter; commission; will" ⇒ ; stḗlē "block of stone, buttress; boundary post" > stele, stela</td><td>sthala- "place, ground, location"</td><td></td><td>OCS stĭlati "to spread"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>shtjell "loosen, I wind up"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>deH₃-, dʰH̥₃- "to give"</td><td></td><td></td><td>dō (dare) "to give"; dator "giver, donor"; dōnum "gift"</td><td>dídōmi "I give"</td><td>dádāti "(he) gives"; dātṛ "giver, donor"; dānam "gift, giving"</td><td>Av dadāiti "(he) gives"; OPers impv. dadātuv "let him give"; NPers dãdan "to give"</td><td>OCS damĭ "I will give"</td><td>OPrus datun "to give", Lith duoti "to give"</td><td>OIr dān, W dawn "gift"</td><td>tam "I give"</td><td>dhashë "I gave" < dH̥₃-sm̥</td><td></td><td>dāi "takes"</td></tr><tr><td>kap- "to grab"</td><td>have (< OE habban), heave (< OE hebban); haven "hæfen"</td><td>haban "to have", hafjan "to lift"</td><td>capiō (capere) "to take"</td><td>káptō "I snatch, swallow"; kaûkos "cup" > Lat caucus</td><td>kapaṭī "two handfuls"</td><td>NPers časpīdan, čapsīdan, cafsīdan "to grasp, seize"</td><td>Ukrainian khapaty "to grab"</td><td>OPrus kaps "grave", Lith kapas "grave", kapt "expression to indicate grabbing.</td><td>OIr cacht "female slave", W caeth "slave, captive" < kap-tos "taken"</td><td></td><td>kap "I grasp, grab", kam "I have"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʰabʰ- "to seize, take"</td><td>give (< OE ġiefan)</td><td>giban "to give"</td><td>habeō (habēre) "to have"</td><td></td><td>gábʰastis "forearm, hand"</td><td>OPers grab "to seize"; Kurd girtin "to take, to seize"</td><td>Russ. xvatát "to snatch, suffice"</td><td>OPrus gabtun "to catch", Lith gebėti "to be able to"</td><td>OIr gaibid "takes"; W gafael "to take hold, to grip"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷʰen- "to strike, kill"</td><td>bane (< OE bana "murderer")</td><td>banja "blow, wound, ulcer"</td><td>dē-fendō (dēfendere) "to ward off, defend", of-fendō (offendere) "to bump, offend"</td><td>tʰeínō "I kill" < gʷʰen-yoH₂, épepʰnon "I killed" < redup. + gʷʰn-om</td><td>hánti "(he) strikes, kills" < gʷʰen-ti, gʰnánti "they strike, kill"; vṛtra·han "Vṛtra-killer, a name of Indra"</td><td>Av ǰainti "(he) strikes, kills", ni-γne (mid.) "I strike down"; OPers impf. ajanam "I struck down"</td><td>OCS ženǫ (gŭnati) "drive (animals to pasture)", žĭnjǫ (žęti) "reap"</td><td>OPrus gintun "to defend", Lith ginti " to defend", ganyti "to drive animals to pasture"</td><td>OIr gonim "I wound, kill"; W gwanu "to stab"</td><td>ǰnem "I strike" < gʷʰen-oH₂, ǰnǰem "I destroy" < gʷʰen-yoH₂</td><td>gjanj "I hunt" < gʷʰen-yoH₂</td><td>B käsk- "to scatter to destruction" < gʷʰn̥-sk-</td><td>kuēnzi "kills" < gʷʰen-ti</td></tr><tr><td>bʰeyd- "to split, cleave"</td><td>bit (< OE bite);bite (< OE bitan); bait (< ON beita)</td><td>beitan "bite"</td><td>'findō "I split"; fissus < fid·tus "split"; fissiō "splitting, fission"</td><td></td><td>bhid-, bhinátti "(s/he) splits, breaks"; bhedati "(s/he) splits"; bhinná < bhid·ná "split, cloven"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>der- "to tear, crack; split, separate"</td><td>tear (< OE teran); turd (< OE tord)</td><td>taurþs "destruction, a teardown"</td><td></td><td>dérō "to skin, flay"; dérma "skin, hide"</td><td>dṛṇā́ti "(s/he) tears, rends, rips; splits open, bursts"</td><td></td><td>OCS dĭrati "to tear, flay"</td><td>Lith dirti "to skin"</td><td></td><td></td><td>djerr "I destroy <PIE dr̥-néH-ti</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰreg- "to break"</td><td>break (< OE brecan); breech, breeches (< OE brēċ)</td><td>brikan "break, wreck, compete"</td><td>frango "I break, shatter"; frāctus "broken"; fragilis "breakable"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>sek- "to cut off, sever"</td><td>saw (tool) (< OE sagu); sax "slate hammer" (< OE seax); seax (directly borrowed from OE seax); zax (< OE seax); Saxon (< Proto-Germanic sahsą "rock, knife")</td><td></td><td>secō, sectum "I cut, cut off; cleave; castrate; wound; hurt" ⇒ ; segmen, segmentum "piece; a cutting, cut; slice; segment"; signum "sign, mark, signal; seal, signet; emblem, etc"; sexus "division; sex; gender"; saxum "stone, rock"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS sěšti "to cut, to mow" Pol siekać "to cut"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>shat/shatë "mattock, hoe" <PIE sēk-teh₂-</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(s)ker- "to cut" (See also: sek-)</td><td>shear (< OE scieran); share (< OE sċearu); shard, sherd (< OE sċeard ); shred (< OE sċrēad); scrap (< ON skrapa); scrape (< ON skrapa); short (< OE sċort); screen < PGmc skirmiz "fur, hide" Yid shirem "umbrella"; Italian schermo "screen"; Russ šírma "screen, shield"; shirt (< OE sċyrte); skirt (< ON skyrta); scar (< PGmc skardaz "gap, cut"); score (< OE scoru)</td><td></td><td>curtus "short; broken"; corium "skin, hide, leather"; carō, carnis "flesh, meat, pulp" ⇒ ; cēna "dinner, supper ('portion')"; cortex "bark of a tree, cork" cork; scortum "a skin, hide; harlot"; scrotum; scrautum "a quiver made of hide"; scrūta "rubbish, broken trash" > Lat scrūtor "I search, examine thoroughly" ⇒ ; scrūpus "a rough sharp stone; anxiety, uneasiness"; scrūpulus "a small sharp or pointed stone; anxiety, uneasiness, doubt" ⇒</td><td>keírō "I shear, shave, cut hair; ravage; destroy; cut short, lessen"; kormós "trunk of a tree; log of timber"; kérma "fragment; coin; cash"</td><td>kartati, kṛṇátti, kṛntáte "(s/he) cuts"; cárman "skin; hide, pelt"; kṛtí "knife, dagger"</td><td></td><td>OCS skora "bast, skin"; kora "bark"; OCS xrabrŭ "brave"</td><td>Lith skersti "to slaughter, to cut (especially animal's neck)", kirsti "to chop", kirpti "to cut", skirti "to separate", skirtingas "different", kirvis "axe"</td><td>W ysgaru "to separate, to divorce"</td><td></td><td>shqerr "to tear, scratch" <PAlb skera</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>skey- skeyd- "to split, dissect, divide" (See also: sek-, (s)ker-)</td><td>shed (< OE sċēadan); sheath, sheathe (< OE sċēaþ); shide "a piece of wood, firewood" (< OE sċīd); shite, shit (< OE sċītan)</td><td></td><td>sciō "I can, know, understand, have knowledge" > science; scindō, scissus "I cut, tear, rend; tear off; destroy"</td><td>skhízō "I split, cleave" > schizophrenia; skhísma "split, divided; division" > schism; skhísis "cleaving, parting, division; vulva"</td><td>chítti "split, division"; √chid-, chinatti "(s/he) splits, cuts off, divides"</td><td></td><td>OCS cěditi "to strain, filter"; čistiti "to clean, purify"; štedrŭ "generous"; štitŭ "shield"</td><td>Lith skiesti "to dilute", skaidyti "to divide into pieces"</td><td></td><td></td><td>shqisë "sense"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃er- "to move, to stir; to rise, spring; quarrel, fight"</td><td></td><td></td><td>orior "I rise, get up"; oriēns "rising" > orient; origo "act, event or process of coming into existence; source" > origin</td><td>órnūmi "I set upon, awaken, raise, excite, stir up"; oûros "fair wind"; éris "strife, quarrel; rivalry"</td><td>ṛṇoti "to attack, rise"; ṛtí "quarrel, strife; attack"</td><td></td><td>OCS ratĭ "war, battle"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃reyH- "to move, set in motion; flow, stream (of water); pour, rain; churn"</td><td>ride (< OE rīdan); raid (< OE rād); run (< OE iernan); -rith "small stream (found in surnames and placenames)"(< OE rīþ)</td><td></td><td>rīvus "stream" > rival (lit. "using the same stream as another"), derive; irrīto "to irritate"</td><td></td><td>riṇā́ti "to make flow, release"; rītí "motion, course; current; custom, rite"; rétas "flow, gush, current, stream; seed, sperm"</td><td></td><td>OCS rinǫti "to push, shove"</td><td></td><td>Gau rēda "chariot"; Gau rēnos "river, waterway" > Lat Rhēnus > Rhine</td><td></td><td>re "clouds" <PAlb rina</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>selǵ- "to let go, send, release"</td><td>sulk (< OE āsolcen < āseolcan "to be slow; weak, slothful")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>sṛjáti "(it) lets go, discharges, emits"; sarjáyati "causes to let loose, creates"; sṛṣṭá- "let go, discharged, abandoned"; sṛ́ṣṭi "letting go, emission; production, procreation; creation, creation of the world"; sárga- "pouring, rush"; sṛká- "arrow, spear"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>kʷel-, kʷelh₁- "to turn" (See also kʷekʷlo-)</td><td>halse "neck, throat" (< OE heals)</td><td>hals "neck"</td><td>colō "I till, cultivate (land); inhabit"; cultus "tilled, cultivated" ⇒ ; colōnus "farmer; colonist, inhabitant"; -cola "inhabitant; tiller, cultivator; worshipper"; colōnia "colony, settlement; possession" ⇒ ; collum "neck, throat (one that turns)" ⇒ ; inquilīnus "sojourner, tenant, lodger"</td><td>pélō "in motion, go; become"; pólos "pivot, hinge; axis, pole star" > pole; pálin "back, backwards; again, once more" ⇒ ; télos "completion, maturity; fulfilment; result, product" > teleology, etc.; Aristotélēs "excellent perfection"; teléō "bring about, complete, fulfill; perform, accomplish"; têle "far off, far away" ⇒ ; pálai "long ago"; palaiós "old, aged; ancient" > paleolithic, etc.</td><td>cárati "it moves, walks, stirs; travels"; caraṇa-, calana- "motion; action; behavior, conduct"</td><td></td><td>OCS kologŭ "Yule (lit. turn)"; kolovrotŭ "circulation, whirlpool; wheel and axle"; Bul kolovóz "rut, wheel track"; koláč "a type of (round) bread"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>sjell "to turn, to bring" <PAlb tšela</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>welH-, wel- "to turn, to wind, roll"</td><td>wallow (< OE wielwan); well (up) (gush) (< OE wellan, willan); well (water source, where the water 'wells up') (< OE wielle); wall (to boil, spring) (< OE weallan); walk (< OE wealcan); wale (< OE walu "ridge, bank")</td><td>walwjan "to roll"; Ger Walz (< walzen "to dance") "the waltz"; Welle "wave"</td><td>volvō "I roll, tumble" ⇒ volūmen "roll, scroll, book; turn; fold" > volume; vallis "valley; hollow" ⇒ ; vallum "wall, rampart"; intervallum "space between walls" > interval; volūcra "a worm, caterpillar"; valgus "knock-kneed, unstraight"; valva "folding door" > valve; vulva "womb"</td><td>eilúō "I wrap, enfold; crawl"; hélix "anything twisted" ⇒ ; hólmos "round, smooth stone; cylindrical bow, dial"</td><td>valati, valate "(it) turns, turns to; moves to; covers"; úlba- "cover, envelope; womb, vulva"; valayá- "coil"; ūrmí "wave"</td><td></td><td>OCS vlĭna "wave"; vlŭnenije "undulation, swell; turmoil, agitation"; Russ valítʹ "to knock down, kill; cut, fell"; val "roller, billow; rampart; shaft"</td><td>Lith vilnìs "wave"</td><td></td><td>OldArm geł "snake, dragon"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>weyp- or weyb- "to shake, tremble, agitate; sway, swing; turn, wind"</td><td>wipe (< OE wīpian); whip (< OE wippen); weave ("to wander") (< ON veifa "wave, flag"); OE wifer "arrow, missile; sword"; swivel (< OE swifan + el); waive < waif ("ownerless, homeless") (< ON veif); gimp (< OF wimpil "head scarf"); gimlet (< AF wimble "drill")></td><td>biwaibjan "to wind around, wrap"; faurwaipjan "to bind, muzzle"</td><td>vibrō "I shake, agitate; tremble; glimmer" > veer, vibrate, etc.</td><td></td><td>vip-, vépate "it trembles, shakes, shivers, vibrates, quivers"; viprá- "excited, stirred; inspired"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Lith viẽpti "to make a face, gape"; vaipýtis "to grimace, bend"; výburti "to swing, turn around"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>leykʷ-, li-ne-kʷ- "to leave behind"</td><td>OE lēon "to lend"</td><td>leiƕan "to lend"</td><td>linquō (linquere) "to leave behind"</td><td>leípō, limpánō "I leave behind"</td><td>riṇákti "(he) leaves behind", 3rd. pl. riñcanti "they leave behind"</td><td>Av -irinaxti "(he) frees"; NPers rēxtan "to pour out"</td><td>OBulg otŭ-lěkŭ "something left over", lišiti "to rob" < leikʷ-s-, Ukr lyshyty "to leave behind"</td><td>Lith likti "to stay"</td><td>OIr lēicid "(he) leaves behind, releases"</td><td>lkʿanem "I leave behind"</td><td>Alb Lej leave</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hrewk- "to dig, till (soil)"; HrewH- "to dig, to root" (See also Hrew-, Hrewp-)</td><td>rock (as in 'to move, sway') (< OE roccian); rag (< ON rǫggr)</td><td></td><td>runcō "I weed, clear of weeds, weed out"; ruō "I dig out"; rutrum "shovel"</td><td></td><td>luñcati "(s/he) plucks, pulls out, tears off; peels"</td><td></td><td>OCS ryti "to dig"; OCS rylo "spade, snouts"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hrewp- "to break, tear up" (See also Hrew-, Hrewk-)</td><td>reave, reeve, reve, bereave (< OE (be)rēofan)</td><td></td><td>rumpō "I break, burst, tear, rend; split" > rout, ruption, abrupt, etc.</td><td></td><td>rópa- "disturbing, confusing; fissure"; lopa- "breaking, injury, destruction"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁reh₁- "to row"</td><td>rudder (< OE rōþor)</td><td></td><td>rēmus "oar"</td><td>erétēs "(in the plural) oars"</td><td>áritra- "propelling, driving"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>W rhwyf "spade, shovel"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Time

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>nu- "now"</td><td>now, Scot noo (< OE nū)</td><td>nu "now"</td><td>num, nunc (num + -ce) "now"; nūper "lately, recently"</td><td>nûn, nun, nu "now"</td><td>nú "now, so now, now then; at once"; nū́ "now"; nūtane "current, present"</td><td>Avestan nū "now"</td><td>OCS nyně "now"; nŭ "but"</td><td>Lith nū, nù "now"; nū̃n "now, today"; nūnaĩ "now, today, nowadays"</td><td></td><td></td><td>nu "when"; ni "now";</td><td></td><td>nu "now, and"</td></tr><tr><td>dʰǵʰyés "yesterday"</td><td>yesterday (< OE ġeostra)</td><td>gistra- "tomorrow (?)"</td><td>heri "yesterday"</td><td>kʰtʰés "yesterday"</td><td>hyás "yesterday" < ǵʰyés</td><td>Av zyō, OPers diya(ka) "yesterday"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OIr in-dē, W ddoe "yesterday"</td><td></td><td>dje "yesterday"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>nokʷts (nekʷts) "night"</td><td>night (< OE neaht, niht < nokʷtis)</td><td>nahts (nahts) "night" < nokʷts</td><td>nox (noctis) "night"</td><td>núks (núktos) "night"</td><td>nák (instr. pl. náktīs) "night"</td><td>Av naxtu "night", Kurd nixte "rainy, cloudy (lack of sunlight)"</td><td>OCS noštĭ "night"</td><td>OPrus nakts "night", Lith naktis "night"</td><td>OIr i-nnocht, W heno "tonight"</td><td></td><td>natë "night"</td><td>A n[a]ktim "nightly", B nekciye "in the evening"</td><td>nekuz (gen. sg.) "of evening", nekuzzi "it becomes dark"</td></tr><tr><td>kʷséps "night"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>kṣap "night, darkness"</td><td>Av xṣ̌ap "night"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wek(ʷ)speros "evening"</td><td>west (< OE west)</td><td></td><td>vesper "evening"</td><td>hésperos "of the evening; western"</td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS večerŭ "evening"; Rus Zorya Vechernyaya "deity of the evening star"</td><td>Latv vakars, Lith vãkaras "evening"; Vakarine "goddess of the evening star"</td><td>OIr ucher "evening"</td><td>OArm gišer "night; darkness"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂éwsōs "dawn", h₂ews-tero- "east", h₂ewso- "gold"</td><td>eastern (< OE ēasterne)</td><td>ON austr "east"</td><td>aurōra "dawn" (< ausōsa, by rhot), aurum "gold" (< ausom)</td><td>Doric āṓs "dawn"; Aeolic aúōs, ā́wōs "dawn"</td><td>uṣās (uṣásas), acc. uṣā́sam "dawn"</td><td>Av ušā̊ (ušaŋhō), acc. ušā̊ŋhǝm "dawn"</td><td>OCS (j)utro "morning"</td><td>OPrus austra "dawn", auss "gold"; Lith aušra "dawn", auksas "gold"; Latv ausma, ausmina "dawn"</td><td>OIr fāir "sunrise", W gwawr "dawn" < wōsri-</td><td>?os-ki "gold"</td><td></td><td>?A wäs "gold"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ken- "to arise, begin"</td><td>begin (< OE beginnan)</td><td>duginnan "to begin"</td><td>recēns "new, fresh, young" > recent</td><td>kainós "new, recent; fresh, unused; unusual" > Cenozoic</td><td>kanyā̀, kaníyā "maiden, virgin; daughter"; kanī́na- "young, youthful"</td><td></td><td>OCS načęti "to begin"; konŭ "beginning, end"; konĭcĭ "end"; zakonŭ "law"; štenę "young animal"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ǵʰyem-, ǵʰeym- "winter"</td><td></td><td>ON gói "winter month"</td><td>hiems "winter"</td><td>kʰeĩma "winter"</td><td>híma- "winter", hemantá- "in winter"</td><td>Av zyā̊ (acc. zyąm, gen. zimō) "winter"</td><td>OCS zima "winter"</td><td>OPrus zeima "winter", Lith žiema "winter"</td><td>Gaul Giamonios "winter month"; OIr gam "winter", gem-adaig "winter night"; OW gaem "winter"</td><td>jmeṙ "winter", jiwn "snow"</td><td>Gheg dimën, Tosk dimër(ë) "winter"</td><td>? A śärme "winter"; ? B śimpriye "winter".</td><td>gimmanza "winter", gimi "in winter"</td></tr><tr><td>semh₂- "summer"</td><td>summer (< OE sumor)</td><td>OHG sumar, OIc sumar "summer"</td><td></td><td></td><td>sámā "season; year"</td><td>Av ham- "summer"; Pers hâmin "summer"; Khot-Saka hamāñarva "summer season"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Gaul Samon(ios) "summer month"; OIr sam "summer"; OW ham, OBret ham "summer"</td><td>OArm am "year", amaṙn "summer"</td><td></td><td>A şme "summer"; B ṣmāye "summer" (adj.), ywārś-ṣmañe "midsummer"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wés-r̥, wes-n-és "spring"</td><td></td><td>ON vár "spring"</td><td>vēr "spring"</td><td>(w)éar "spring"</td><td>vasan-tá- "spring"</td><td>Av vaŋri "in spring"; OPers θūra-vāhara-</td><td>OCS vesna "spring"</td><td>OPrus wassara "spring", Lith vasara "summer", pavasaris "spring", vėsu "cool"</td><td>OIr errach "spring"< ferrach < wesr-āko-; OW guiannuin "in spring" < wes-n̥t-eino-</td><td>garun "spring"< wesr-</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wet- "year", per-ut- "last year"</td><td>wether "castrated male sheep" (< OE weþer),</td><td>OHG widar "male sheep", MHG vert "last year" <- per-ut-, ON fjorð "last year" <- per-ut-</td><td>vetus (veteris) "old"</td><td>(w)étos "year", pérusi "last year"</td><td>vatsá-, vatsará- "year", par-út "last year"</td><td>Sogdian wtšnyy (read wat(u)šanē) "old"</td><td>OCS vetŭchŭ "old"</td><td>OLith vẽtušas "old"</td><td>MIr feis, Cornish guis "sow" < wet-si-</td><td>heru "last year" < peruti</td><td>vit (pl. vjet) "year"</td><td></td><td>witt- "year"</td></tr><tr><td>h₂et- "to go, year"</td><td></td><td>aþnam (Dat. Pl.) "years"</td><td>annus < atnus "year"</td><td></td><td>átati "(it) goes, walks, wanders"; hā́yana- "yearly"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>yeh₁r- "year"</td><td>year (< OE ġēar)</td><td>jēr "year"</td><td>hōrnus "this year's" < hōyōr-</td><td>hōra "time, year" < yoH₁r-</td><td></td><td>Av yārə "year"</td><td>Russ. CH jara "spring"</td><td>OLith Jórė "spring festival"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂óyu "long time, lifetime"</td><td>OE ā "always"</td><td>aiws "eternity"</td><td>aevum aeternum, aeternitas "lifetime"</td><td></td><td>āyus "life, age" (as in the word āyur·veda, "knowledge of (long) life")</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Gaul aiu- "eternity, longevity"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Ideas and rituals

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ǵʰew- "to pour, libate, invoke"</td><td>god (< OE god < PIE. ǵʰutós "invoked, libated")</td><td>giutan "pour" ?guta "Goth"</td><td>fundō "I pour"</td><td></td><td>hotrá "libation"; hotṛ "priest, offerer of libations"; juhóti "to worship, sacrifice, present an oblation"; hóma "oblation, a Vedic ritual"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>gumoj "I pour"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁yaǵ- "to sacrifice, worship"</td><td></td><td></td><td>ieientō "to eat breakfast"</td><td>hágios "devoted to the gods, holy, pious"</td><td>yájati "(s/he) worships"; yajña "worship, devotion, prayer"; yájus "religious reverence, worship, sacrifice";</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱréddʰh₁eti "to believe" < ḱred- "heart" + dʰh₁eti "place" (See also k̂erd-)</td><td></td><td></td><td>crēdō "I believe, I trust in, I confide in" (> creed, credo)</td><td></td><td>śraddhā́ "faith, trust, confidence, loyalty", śrad-dadʰāti "(he) trusts, believes"</td><td>Av zrazdā- "to believe" < srazdā</td><td></td><td></td><td>Old Irish cretim, W credaf "I believe"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>gʷerH- "to praise, express approval; to elevate"</td><td></td><td></td><td>grātus "pleasing"; grātia "grace, thankfulness"; grātuītus "freely given, free"</td><td></td><td>járate "(s/he) praises, invokes"; gṛṇā́ti "(s/he) calls, invokes, mentions with praise, extols"; gūrtá- "agreeable, pleasing, lovely; approved, welcome"; gūrtí "approval, praise; benediction"</td><td></td><td>OCS žrĭti "to sacrifice"; žrĭtva "sacrifice, offering"; žrĭcĭ "priest"</td><td>Lith girti "to praise", geras "good"</td><td>OIr bard, W bardd "bard"</td><td></td><td>grah " to incite, to roar"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₁wegʷʰ- "to promise, vow; praise"</td><td></td><td></td><td>voveō, vōtum "I vow, promise; dedicate, devote; wish for"</td><td>eúkhomai "I pray, vow, wish for; profess"; eûkhos "prayer, object of prayer; boast; vow"</td><td>óhate "(s/he) says"; ukthá "saying; sentence, verse; eulogy"</td><td>Av uxδa "word"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱwen-, ḱwen-tos "holy"</td><td></td><td>hunsl "sacrifice"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Av spəṇta "holy"</td><td>OCS svętŭ "holy"</td><td>Lith šveñtas "holy", šventė "holiday, celebration", švęsti "to celebrate"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>seh₂k- "holy"</td><td></td><td></td><td>sanciō "I render, appoint as sacred; devote, consecrate, dedicate"; sānctus "sacred, made inviolable; venerable, blessed, saintly"; sacer "sacred, holy, dedicated, consecrated; devoted"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Unclassified

Indo-European vocabulary

<table><thead><tr><th>PIE</th><th>English</th><th>Gothic</th><th>Latin</th><th>Ancient Greek</th><th>Sanskrit</th><th>Iranian</th><th>Slavic</th><th>Baltic</th><th>Celtic</th><th>Armenian</th><th>Albanian</th><th>Tocharian</th><th>Hittite</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>gʰedʰ- "to unite, join, suit"</td><td>good (< OE gōd); gather (< OE gaderian); together (< OE togædere)</td><td>goþs "good"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>godǔ "suitable time, holiday, feast, right time, time, term, year"; OCS godina "hour; time"; godĭnŭ "suitable"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰed- "to improve, make better"</td><td>better (< OE betera); batten (< ON batna "to grow better, improve, recover"); boot (< OE bōt "help, relief, advantage, remedy")</td><td>bota "gain, benefit, advantage" batiza "better"</td><td></td><td></td><td>bhadrá- "blessed, auspicious, fortunate, prosperous, happy; good, gracious, friendly, kind; excellent, fair, lovely, pleasant, dear"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>W bodd "consent, will"</td><td></td><td>betë "good, right"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂el- "to grow, nourish"</td><td>old (< OE eald, ald); alderman (< OE ealdorman)</td><td>aljan "to cause to grow fat, fatten" alþeis "old"</td><td>oleō (olēre) "I grow"; alō (alere) "I foster, I nourish; I raise"; alimentum "food, nourishment; obligation to one's parents"; alumnus "nourished, fostered"; alimōnia "food, nourishment"; altus "high, tall"; indolēs "innate, inborn; talent"; adolescēns "growing up"; adultus "grown-up, matured"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃erdʰ- "to increase, grow; upright, high"</td><td></td><td></td><td>arbor (< OLat arbōs < PIta arðōs) "tree (high plant)"; arduus "lofty, high, steep, elevated; arduous"</td><td>orthós "straight, upright, erect; straight forward"</td><td>ūrdhvá "rising, raised, erected; upright, high, above"; ṛ́ddhi "growth, increase; prosperity; elevation"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰeh₂g- "to divide, distribute, allot"</td><td>baksheesh (< Pers baxšidan "to give, grant, bestow")</td><td></td><td></td><td>éphagon "I ate, devoured (took my share)" > -phagy, (o)esophagus</td><td>bhakṣá- "food, drink, delight"; bhájati "to distribute, divide, allot, chooe, serve"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>deh₂- deh₂y- "to share, divide"</td><td>time (< OE tīma); tide (< OE tīd)</td><td></td><td></td><td>daíomai "I divide, share; host (a feast)"; dêmos "district, country, land; the common people; free citizens, sovereign people; deme"; daís "feast, banquet"; daitrós "one who carves and portions out meat at table"; daímōn "god, goddess; departed soul; demon"</td><td>dītí "brightness, time"; dā́ti, dyáti "(s/he) cuts, clips, mows, separates, divides"; dātrá- "allotted share"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ditë "day"</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>deh₂p- "to sacrifice, lose"</td><td>tap "hit lightly" (< OE tappen); tip "touch quietly, bump quietly" (< OE tippen)</td><td>ON tafn "sacrifice"</td><td>daps "a sacrificial or solemn feast, religious banquet; meal"; damnum < dapnum "damage, injury; (financial) loss; fine"</td><td>dáptō "I eat, devour; consume, corrode"; dapánē "cost, expenditure; extravagance"</td><td>dāpayati "(s/he) divides"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ga duan "song, poem" (< PC daunā)</td><td>tawn "feast"</td><td></td><td>A tāpal "food"</td><td>tappala- "person responsible for court cooking"</td></tr><tr><td>delh₁- "to split, divide"</td><td>tell, teller (< OE tellen); tale (< OE talu); talk (< OE tealcian)</td><td></td><td>dolō "I hew, chop into shape; fashion, devise"; doleō "I hurt, suffer; I grieve for, lament"; dolor "pain, ache, hurt; anguish, grief, sorrow"</td><td></td><td>dalati "it bursts"; dālayati "(s/he) splits, cracks"; dala- "deal, portion, piece, half";</td><td></td><td>OCS delěti, odolěti "to overcome, defeat"; Russ dólja "share, fate"</td><td>Lith dalyti "to divide", dalinti "to divide, to share"</td><td>W delw "statue, image"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>dʰayl- "part, watershed"</td><td>deal (< OE dǣl); dole (< OE dāl)</td><td>dails "part, portion, share"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>OCS děliti "to divide"; OCS dělŭ "part"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰeh₂- "to shine, glow"</td><td></td><td></td><td>faveō "I favor"; favor "id"; faustus "favorable, fortunate"; fautor "patron, protector, promoter"</td><td>phaínō "I shine, appear, bring to light"</td><td>bhā́s "light"; bhānú "light, ray, sun"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰewg- "to enjoy, benefit"</td><td></td><td></td><td>fungor "I perform, execute, discharge; finish, complete, end" > fungible, defunct; fūnctiō "performance, execution (of a task)" > function</td><td></td><td>bhuj-, bhunákti "(s/he) enjoys; consumes, eats, drinks; uses, utilizes"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>bʰruHg- "to make use of, have enjoyment of"</td><td>brook (< OE brūcan) "(old meaning) to use, enjoy"; Ger brauchen "to need, require"</td><td>brukjan "to use"</td><td>fruor "I enjoy, derive pleasure from"; frūctus "enjoyment, delight, satisfaction; produce, product, fruit; profit, yield, outcome" ⇒ ; frūmentum "corn, grain"; frūx, frūgēs "fruits of the earth, produce" > frugal</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>deyḱ- "to point out";</td><td>toe (< OE tā); token (< OE tācn); teach (< OE tǣċan)</td><td>gateihan "announce, proclaim, declare" PGmc taihwǭ "toe"; tīhwaną "to show, announce"</td><td>dīcō "I say, utter; mention, talk"; digitus "finger, toe, digit"</td><td>díkē "custom, manner, fashion; law, order, right; judgement, justice"; deîgma "specimen, sample; pattern"; deíknumi, "I point out, show"</td><td>diśáti "(s/he) points out, shows;teaches, informs; orders, commands, bids"; deśá- "point, region, spot, part; province, country"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₂eyḱ- "to own, obtain, come in possession of"; h₂eh₂óyḱe- "to possess, own"</td><td>own (< OE āgen); owe (< OE āgan); OE āga "owner"; ought, aught (< OE ǣht)</td><td>aigan "own, possess"</td><td></td><td></td><td>√īś, īṣṭe "(s/he) owns, possesses, is master of; rules"; īśá- "owning"; īśāná-, īśvara- "owner, master; ruler; epithets of the god Śiva"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>seǵʰ- "to hold, overpower"</td><td>OE siġe "victory" < PGmc segaz (In personal names, e.g., Sigmund, Siegfried, etc.)</td><td>sigis "victory"; sigislaun "prize, spoils"</td><td>sevērus "severe, serious, strict, stern, stringent, austere, harsh, grave"</td><td>ékhō "I have, possess; hold, am able" ⇒ ; ískhō "I hold back, restrain; stay; hold fast, maintain"; iskhū́s "strength, power, might"; héxis "possession, act of having; a certain state, condition" ⇒ ; skhêma "form, shape, figure; appearance, show; bearing, look, air; stateliness, dignity; fashion, manner; character, persona; state, nature; species, kind; dance; sketch, outline, plan, scheme" ⇒ ; okhurós "firm, lasting, stout"; skholḗ "leisure, free time; rest; philosophy; place where lectures are given" ⇒ ; Héktōr lit. "conqueror"; skhétlios "able to hold out, steadfast, unflinching"</td><td>sáhate "(s/he) overcomes, vanquishes, conquers, prevails; is able, capable; bears, endures"; sáhas "strength, power, force"; sā́ḍhṛ "conqueror"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Gaul Sego- (in personal and tribal names) "victory"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>h₃erbʰ- "to change status, ownership"; h₃órbʰos "servant, worker, slave; orphan"</td><td>erf "heritage, inheritance" (< OE erfe);</td><td>arbaiþs "labour, work, toil" arbja "heir" arbjo "heiress" Ger arbeit "work", Erbe heir</td><td>orbus "orphaned, parentless"</td><td>orphanós "orphan; childless; bereft"</td><td>árbha- "orphan; child; small"</td><td></td><td>OCS rabŭ "servant, slave" (< ārbǔ); Czech orbota "hard work, slavery" > robot; Pol robić "to make, to do"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hrew- "to tear out, dig out, open, acquire" (See also Hrewp-, Hrewk-)</td><td></td><td></td><td>rudis "rough, raw, uncultivated; unrefined, unskilled" ⇒</td><td></td><td>róman "hair, body hair"</td><td></td><td>OCS runo "fleece"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ḱel- "to cover, to conceal"</td><td>helm; hall (< OE heall); hell (< OE hell/hel); hold (< OE healdan/haldan)</td><td>huljan "to cover, to wrap, to veil"; haldan "to hold"</td><td>cella "storeroom"; color "color" (< Proto-Italic kelōs "oustside, aspect"); cilium "eyelid"; clam "secretly"; cālīgō "fog, mist, vapor"; cēlō "I conceal"</td><td>koleós "sheath"; kalúptō "I cover"; kalúbē "hut, cabin"; kéluphos "sheath, case"; kelébē "cup, jar"; kálpis "pitcher, cup"</td><td>śaraṇá "s/he protects, guards"</td><td></td><td></td><td>Latvian salis "frozen over"; Lithuanian šali̇̀s "land, region, periphery"</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>